During Elizabeth's reign in England (1558-1603), the Church of England was put under clearer discipline.  The 1559 Act of Uniformity reversed Mary's establishment of Catholicism.  It also authorized a new (Protestant) prayer book … attempting to unify High Church (Royalist) and Low Church (Calvinist) factions within the Church of England.  Also, step by step, new Articles were added to the Anglican Church's Ten Articles of 1536 put in place by Henry VIII when he was excommunicated from the Catholic Church by Pope Clement VII.  Additional Articles would be added … until by 1571 a total of 39 Articles were to form part of the Church's Book of Common Prayer – which also defined the doctrines of the Church of England in response to both traditional Catholic religious practice and reformist Calvinist religious doctrine. 


This would please many of the Calvinist "purists" ... or "Puritans" as they were termed most mockingly at the time.  However, some of the Puritans felt that these reforms did not go far enough in returning Christianity to its Biblical or 1st century roots ... and concluded that deeper Biblical reform of the Church and its worship was just not going to happen.  They thus decided to just take off on their own ("separate") and do Christian worship their own way.
 
This spirit of such "Separatism" seemed to take hold especially in areas of northern England.   Robert Browne was one of the founders of the Separatists who, with a number of his followers ("Brownists") in Norfolk, were imprisoned repeatedly during the 1580s.  Finally, Browne and his group moved to Middelburg, Netherlands (1581).  But within two years the group broke up over internal dissent.  Browne would return to England … and then even to good standing within the Church of England … even contesting those "Brownists" who continued as Separatists. 
 
With time, the situation facing English Separatists merely worsened, as the Religion Act of 1592 made it illegal for them to hold their own services … and in 1593 – under the orders of John Whitgift, the Archbishop of Canterbury – Separatist leader John Greenwood and activist writers Henry Barrowe and John Penry were executed for sedition:  issuing publications critical of the Church of England and its doctrines.  No one was allowed to challenge the Church of England's doctrines ... or its authorities.

"Reform" under James I Stuart

Then the Puritans came to develop high hope for acceptance of their Reformist position when supposedly Protestant James I Stuart to the throne in 1603.  However, they were to find themselves deeply disappointed at the 1604 Hampton Court Conference ... when the Puritans received only the concession of a new prayer book and eventually a new English translation of the Bible. 

Worse for them, that same year the new Archbishop of Canterbury, Richard Bancroft, launched a strong campaign against both the Separatists and the Puritans ... removing over 300 ministers from their southern pulpits.

Then to the north of England, Matthew Hutton, Archbishop of York (who had been somewhat sympathetic to the Puritans) died in 1606 … and was replaced by the strong Stuart supporter Tobias Matthew – who pushed for the same persecution of the Puritans and Separatists (and Catholics) in his York archdiocese.

The Scrooby Separatists

Meanwhile, William Brewster (Cambridge educated, former diplomat, and serving as the postmaster of the small northern village of Scrooby) and his young friend, William Bradford (orphaned very young … but of a prosperous farming family – and raised by uncles), worshiped together at the Babworth church under the "Brownist" (Separatist) ministry of Richard Clyfton.  Then when Clyfton was removed from his pulpit in 1605, his small congregation of about 50 individuals began to gather at Brewster's home, Scrooby Manor (1606).  John Robinson (another friend of Brewster's), recently fired from his pulpit at Norwich, was also to join them there ... and minister alongside Clyfton.

Meanwhile in nearby Gainsborough, numerous Separatists met for worship under John Smyth.  Facing similar problems, the Scrooby congregation stayed in close contact with the Gainsborough congregation.  Then in 1607 Smyth decided to follow Browne's earlier example … and lead his Gainsborough congregation out of England ... to Amsterdam.

Off to Holland

Meanwhile, Archbishop Hutton found out about the meetings going on in Scrooby, and pressures were applied to the congregation to recant of its Separatism.  This in turn inspired Brewster and others to come to the decision to join the other Separatists in Holland.

However, in their effort to get away in September of 1607 (it was highly illegal to leave the country without permission), they were betrayed by the ship captain that was supposed to take them to Holland.  They were arrested and briefly imprisoned (Brewster, however, was subject to only a fine).  But in a second attempt the next year (1608) they were able to join Smyth in Amsterdam.  But when a doctrinal dispute then developed the next year, the Scrooby congregation decided to move on to the Dutch city of Leyden.

But, as Bradford noted in his published diary, Of Plymouth Plantation (approximately 1620-1647), the Netherlands experience was not the perfect solution to the Separatists' problems that they had hoped for.  Some however, such as Brewster (who joined the group and took a position as English teacher at Leiden University) found jobs … a number of them in the textile, printing and brewing trades.  And the community's pastor Robinson enrolled at the university to do study for his doctorate.  Indeed, so engaged in the dynamics of their new social setting were both Brewster (now serving alongside Robinson as senior Elder) and Robinson, that they came to find themselves deeply involved in the Remonstrant Controversy (strict Calvinism v. Arminianism).  Brewster even acquired printing equipment so as to be able to publish his own Calvinist arguments.

But others among the Separatists with merely a farming background found employment difficult to come by.  And the language barrier was hard on the Separatists, who were hoping to maintain their English identity.  Robinson and three partners were able to buy an estate where they could house the less fortunate of their congregation.  But this was hardly a solution to their problems.  And it was discouraging seeing their children take up more libertine Dutch ways.  And many of them were growing up and departing to other parts of the Netherlands.  And others of the older members had spent their reserves to a point of exhaustion … and decided to return to England.

Then there was the Spanish political issue … as the truce ending the 80 Years War was no longer holding and the fear was growing of finally a Catholic success in Spain's desire to force all Dutch lands (not just Flanders) back into the Catholic faith.

But their situation was complicated further when in 1618, King James issued a royal decree that all those (Puritans and Separatists) that could not accept the position of the king as the head of the Church had to leave the country.   To the Puritans, only Jesus had the right to such a title.

Meanwhile, by 1617 (ten years into their social experiment there) these Separatists had come to the realization that if they stayed in Leyden, they would face extinction as a community.  They needed to move on.  But to where?  Dutch holdings in Guiana and the Caribbean were considered … as well as English Virginia.  But both areas came with old problems, linguistic (the Dutch holdings) and religious (Virginians lived under the full authority of the Church of England).

The look to America

The Hudson River area had good possibilities as a place to relocate – since the Dutch claimed the area ... although Dutch settlement had not yet begun there.  And it was close, but not too close, to the English position in Virginia.

Furthermore, they were very aware (thanks to pastor Robinson's sermons) that the choice would have to be based not on any particular political or economic advantages but on the will of God … for their enterprise was one not of escape but of mission … of Christian mission – as directed by God himself.  Thus they were to proceed on the basis that God would go before them … if they were fully willing (by faith) to take up his call for them to move forward as a "chosen people" – like Israel of old.

Ultimately the plan of the Separatists – or "Pilgrims" as we might now term them because of the nature of this activity they were planning to undertake – was for only a third of the Leiden community to be part of the first wave of settlers heading toward America at the end of the summer of 1620. The others were expected to head to America in subsequent journeys.  Thus pastor Robinson stayed behind to continue to lead the larger portion of the Leiden community.

And thus in June of 1619, an English royal patent was secured for the community (through a John Wincob) to undertake such a settlement in "Northern Virginia" under royal authority … although King James had agreed to this only upon the condition that the group's religion would itself receive no royal recognition.

But question remained:  how were they to finance the huge venture of moving the Leiden congregation to America?  Here's where a new set of problems emerged … made worse by the slick dishonesty of the English commercial agent, Thomas Weston, whom the community's two representatives, John Carver and Robert Cushman, came to work with.  Weston assured them that he could get the very best terms from the London Company Adventurers (investors).   Thus Weston approached various Adventurers to get them to back the venture, claiming that he had secured a royal land grant in the area north of Virginia (a region termed "New England").  Actually this was not fully true, because the English group formed to support such settlement in the region of America north of Virginia, the Plymouth Council for New England, did not actually receive such a charter until late in 1620 (when the venture was already well underway).
 
Furthermore, Weston had finally put together the needed financial support for this venture by revising considerably the terms under which the colonists would compensate the Adventurers for their financial support.  Weston's latest plan was to place the colonists under the obligation to give fully half of the land developed by the colonists to the investors, even after their (typical) seven years of service were completed.  And he dropped from the original charter the colonists' right to have two days of the week to work for themselves and not just for their investors.  And he got Robert Cushman – the individual that Weston found easy to manipulate (during Carver's absence in London) – to agree to Weston's new terms undercutting the Leyden group's rights.  But these new terms would not be revealed to the colonists until just prior to their departure for America.

The voyage begins

Meanwhile, a small ship, Speedwell, was purchased to bring the settlers from the Netherlands to England, to be joined there by passengers on the larger Mayflower, its passengers enlisted by the investors for service in New England and its crew to return to England after dropping off its passengers … but with the Speedwell to remain with the settlers to be used for the fishing business.

Then, in mid-August, as the colonists were about to embark for America, Weston revealed the new terms that he wanted them to put themselves under.  And wasn't he furious when they refused to sign the new charter!  Thus these colonists would head for America … their legal-financial status most unclear.  But at least they had John Carver to lead them and William Brewster to guide them through the challenges that awaited them.

To add to the confusion, once underway, the expedition did not get very far before a leaking hull in the Speedwell forced the group to turn back and make repairs.  But a second attempt did not get any further … and it was finally decided to abandon the Speedwell and put both groups aboard the Mayflower.  Bradford would later comment that the crew had purposely over-masted and thus seriously strained the wooden hull of the Speedwell in order to take it out of service … along with their year-long service commitment in America.  Very clever!  But it left the American group in deep trouble.

Finally, only 102 of the original 120 passengers chose to make the third departure … which finally got underway in mid-September.  Of that group only 41 of the men, women and children were from the Leyden group.  One of those declining to continue was the Leyden agent, Robert Cushman, the individual that Weston had found so easy to manipulate.  Of the rest of the passengers – or "strangers" as they would be termed by the "saints" of Leyden – some were of a similar religious interest in the venture.  Some such as Captain Miles Standish were there in an official role … while others were there simply hoping to find new opportunities for themselves in America.

At first things on the high seas went smoothly.  Then strong winds and storms hit the group, a main mast of the Mayflower cracking in the event … and causing the group to consider the need to turn back, even though they were more than halfway across the ocean.  But they were able to repair the mast and continue westward … although these same winds and storms were blowing them well northward of their intended destination.

The arrival at Cape Cod 

Finally (after 65 days at sea) on November 9^th they spotted land and recognized it from their maps (John Smith, after his departure from Virginia, had done some extensive exploration and mapping of the North American coast line) as Cape Cod.  They thus needed to head south around the cape to get to their intended destination at the mouth of the Hudson River.  But those same winds were blowing in such a strong northerly direction that it made this impossible.  Thus they realized that they were going to have to take themselves ashore at the Cape.

But what exactly was the legal status of this venture at this point?  They clearly found themselves in territory they had no legal right to.  and they were well aware that the patent they were supposed to possess that defined the legal character of their enterprise was not yet in their hands.  In short, they were under no particular legal authority in their operation. 

At this point some of the "strangers" began to challenge the Puritan leadership … indicating serious trouble ahead.  The leaders thus came up with a solution … based on the way they had structured their community back in Scrooby:  they would draw up among themselves an agreement or contract, signed by all male adults while they were still aboard ship at Cape Cod, in which they agreed to live in mutual service to each other in building their new community in America.  And thus the famous Mayflower Compact (written by John Carver) came into being … serving  to define and discipline this newly-formed society.

At this point they already had a religious community to serve as their core group.  And most of the "strangers" had also come to see themselves as part of that community ... a result of the dynamics of the Atlantic crossing.  William Brewster was very importantly their Senior Elder (something of a pastor) to help guide them spiritually ... a matter most important to the strength of any community.  But they needed also some kind of civic order to live and work under.  Thus they decided to choose, by vote, their own civic leader, their "governor."  And thus it was that John Carver – who had already given so much of himself to make the venture succeed, would be called as their first governor. … although tragically he would die the coming May (1621) … and his wife also shortly after.

And thus it was that they were to become a truly "democratic" society ... based on the fundamental Christian understanding that if all people are equals (in both responsibilities as well as rights) in the eyes of God, so also must they be equals in the sight of each other.


But they still had not yet gone ashore to do some serious searching for the proper place to set themselves up physically.  Under the leadership of Miles Standish, English military officer, and the Mayflower's captain, Christopher Jones, they had conducted some local explorations … and had discovered remains of abandoned Indian settlements and some Indian graves.  They also discovered some small caches of corn … which they knew that they themselves would need to begin the next spring's planting (before they could expect additional English ships to locate and resupply them).  Meanwhile, their small boat or shallop necessary for more extensive coastal exploration had yet to be assembled … and repaired.  This took two of their precious weeks to put together.  At the same time, the December cold and the ship's dampness, plus poor nutrition (scurvy), was beginning to attack the health of the settlers aboard the Mayflower … and now the deaths (that sadly were expected in such a venture as this) began to occur.
 
Their first encounter with the local Indians was sporadic and distant … but finally a serious encounter occurred with arrows shot at them by local braves, to which the Puritan men making up the search party (about 17 men in all) returned musket fire.  After that, they would have no further encounters with the local tribesmen for the next several months.  The Indians rightly were very suspicious of these palefaces who arrived on large ships from some distant land … for one of them – Thomas Hunt in particular – had kidnapped some 27 of their Wampanoag tribal members (and sold them into slavery in Spain).  And there were other examples of cruel mistreatment as well.  And finally, they were well aware that the sickness (the plague or smallpox ravaging England at the time) which accompanied the arrival of these newcomers was a very serious threat to their existence … as they had no immunity to such disease … and it had wiped out the local Indian population of the very area (Patuxet) that the English settlers were soon to locate their new plantation.

Finally, as a result of a storm that badly damaged their shallop, they miraculously found themselves delivered to a place that in short order revealed itself as a perfect spot to locate their settlement.  It was an area already cleared for human habitation (but strangely devoid of such inhabitants), blessed with freshwater springs and a hill behind it to provide protection from both the weather … and hostile Indians.  Thus they made their way back to the Mayflower to announce their find at a site they would term as a new "Plymouth."


But most tragically, Bradford returned from his expedition with the other men to the news that, in their absence, his wife Dorothy had mysteriously died of drowning in the bay – and that her body had never been recovered.

Then construction began … most importantly for that of a common house where they could place their sick for care.  But by this time (mid-January) crippling sickness and death were rampant.  And to top this off, at one point near tragedy struck when the thatch roofing of the common house caught fire … endangering the lives of those in care there not only from the fire itself but from all the gunpowder stored there.  Thankfully they were able to extinguish the fire before it did serious damage to the timbers.  And so life went for this brave little community.

Meanwhile the sickness and death increased … to a point where there were only a handful of people (such as Standish and Brewster) well enough to take care of the rest of the community (Bradford was himself very, very sick).  By the end of February, 31 of their members were dead and by the end of March that number had risen to a total of 47 … including 13 out of the 18 wives in the group.  And that death rate included also half of the ship's crew.  Furthermore, they had to be buried at night in shallow graves located in the surrounding overgrowth … in order to hide the tragedy from the Indians – so as to keep them from discovering the vulnerability of the greatly weakened community.


Finally as the spring approached, the dying slowed up considerably … although at this point (May) it was yet to include their new governor, John Carver.  Thus the community chose Bradford to take his place. Bradford would be elected and reelected nearly annually as governor from this first election in 1621 until his death in 1657 (he would step away from office periodically to let others take on the responsibilities of governorship.)

Now simple houses were in place … as well as a blockhouse at the top of the hill overlooking the settlement, armed with an array of cannons that Captain Jones was willing to leave behind to the settlement. And here the settlers also gathered on a Sunday to hear Elder Brewster deliver his well-received sermons, sermons giving hope and strength to a community determined to survive whatever the Adversary (Satan himself) might want to throw at them.

Samoset, Squanto, and Massasoit

Then also the situation began to change greatly in favor of the surviving members of this small community … when in mid-March an English-speaking Algonquin Indian sagamore (chief) Samoset marched into their settlement.  He was from Maine, had ventured some months earlier into the region by way of an English sea captain, Thomas Dermer, who was exploring the coast, and who was willing to take this adventuresome Indian along with him … because Samoset simply loved adventure. 

And Samoset was ready with answers to the Pilgrims' questions about the larger world around them … in particular the Indian socio-political profile of the region.  This is when they found out why the particular spot they had placed their settlement was devoid of Indian habitation:  the plague had a few years earlier destroyed the Patuxets, a tribal group noted for slaughtering any white man who ended up on their shores (in reaction to Thomas Hunt's kidnapping of 20 of their members).  The fate of the Patuxets – supposed by the Indians to have been the work of evil spirits – caused the surrounding tribes to fear the area … and thus it was empty of Indian habitation when these English settlers showed up.

Furthermore, Samoset was willing to put the Pilgrims in contact with the sachem (chief) of the nearest tribe, the Wampanoags, among whom he had been staying.  Were they friendly?  Yes.  Who then were the Indians who had shot their arrows at them?  Samoset explained that these were Nauset warriors who also hated the English … for the very same reason that the Patuxets had:  the treachery of Hunt when he kidnapped 7 of their members.

Then a few days later Samoset would return … but with another English-speaking Indian companion:  Tisquantum or "Squanto" as the English called him.  And he was a Patuxet … but one found in their presence only under the most unusual of God-given circumstances. Squanto and two other Indians had been seized in 1605 by another English sea captain, George Weymouth … and taken to England and taught English in order to inform the head of the Plymouth Council for New England, Sir Ferdinando Gorges, about conditions in America … where Gorges was deeply invested in an English colonization effort (at the time focused principally on what would become Maine).  During the next nine years in England Squanto met John Smith of the Virginia colony … who promised to return him to his people in Cape Cod.  And indeed, in Smith's 1614 exploration/mapping expedition he returned Squanto to his Patuxet homeland.
 
But Smith had left behind (for fur-trading business purposes) Captain Thomas Hunt … who got the bright idea that there was more money to be made in the slavery than in the fur-trading business.  And thus Squanto was one of the 20 Patuxets that Hunt carted off to Malaga, Spain, and its huge slave market.  But a monk purchased rights to Squanto, and brought him to the monastery to teach this bright Indian the Christian faith.  Squanto however did not stay long at the monastery but got himself back to England, where he convinced sea captain Thomas Dermer to return him to his Patuxet homeland.  It was in this return voyage in 1619 by way of Maine that he met and befriended Samoset.
 
Imagine his shock when upon his second return to his homeland Squanto found a ruined village empty … except for the skeletons of his dead relatives and friends.  A despairing Squanto finally wandered into the neighboring Wampanoag camp, where a sympathetic chief Massasoit took pity on him and let him stay there.  But now his friend Samoset showed up with the story about some English settlers nearby who were having a most difficult time  staying alive.  Ah, the English again!  But Squanto's reaction was strangely sympathetic rather than vengeful … and he proved anxious to put real meaning back into his life by helping this struggling community.  And thus Samoset and Squanto arrived at the Plymouth Plantation – along with 60 painted Wampanoag warriors – to meet these English settlers.

But the mood was one of friendship … and willingness to enter into a proper relationship (celebrated even with a proper amount of liquor) through a treaty of peace and mutual support agreed on between Massasoit and Governor Carter then and there.  What is amazing is that Massasoit was probably the only Indian chief in the long run of the Atlantic coast who would have been willing to live in such peace with these strangers.  And their peaceful relationship would run the length of Massasoit and Bradford's lives, even 40 years at least.

Summer success and autumn Thanksgiving

Now the enterprising Squanto got to work … showing the English how to harvest eels, how (and when) to catch cod, and most importantly how to plant and fertilize (and protect from hungry wolves the fish that served as that fertilizer) stands of corn.  And he taught them how to trap the beavers whose pelts brought high prices back in Europe.  This would be the way they would compensate their creditors in England.

And that warm summer would prove to be a huge success to the new community.  Their housing was well in place.  Their crops were prospering.  And with Squanto as interpreter, the Pilgrims ventured widely to trade in furs with the Indians.

And thus it was that Governor Bradford declared a day to be set aside in October to give thanks to the God who, through all the human trials they had faced, had brought their humble venture to awesome success.  And to show their appreciation for the support of their Indian friends, they invited the Wampanoag to join them in this festive celebration (not sure exactly how they were going to feed these additional mouths from their winter stores).  However, the Indians showed up – 90 of them – even a day before the scheduled day of Thanksgiving … but fully loaded with a huge amount of deer and turkey meat … and a willingness to show the women how to make maple syrup for their corn pudding … and how to make popcorn! And English vegetables, dried fruit and wine from wild grapes added to the elegant menu.  And not just for one but for several days the two communities shared in this joyous celebration to God for his bountiful support.  And Brewster's message and prayer made it very clear to whom it was that they owed such good fortune, one they were able to share with their Indian friends.

More mouths to feed

Not until November of that year were they to have further contact with their English homeland … when an English ship on its way to Virginia dropped off 35 more colonists … but no accompanying supplies!  Consequently the Pilgrims would have to go to half-rations during the coming winter and spring in order to survive.
 
And unfortunately the gullible Cushman was one of those new settlers, who had been convinced by the scheming Weston to press the colonists to agree to Weston's revised conditions … Cushman doing so by claiming that not to do so was an act of very sinful selfishness.  And sadly, the colonists, shaken by the new seemingly very desperate situation created by the arrival of the newcomers – fearful that they had no likelihood of further support from the homeland and thus no other recourse (where did their faith in God go at that moment?) finally consented … putting themselves at a huge disadvantage, one in fact that by weakening themselves this way, the greedy Adventurers back in London would merely worsen the terms they were forced to live under step by step over the years.1

Learning great moral lessons from material "success"
  But what could they do to improve their situation?

The coming year (1622) saw the colonists able to produce a respectable crop ... but one not greatly able to meet the financial requirements they were now living under.  But what could they do to improve their situatin?

Then the decision was made that in the coming year, 1623, instead of farming common fields together, they would divide up the land into household holdings, each family gaining a share of the land to work for themselves.  And suddenly self-interested productivity took off.

That was until a drought hit ... and it looked as if the Plymouth Plantation was thus headed for another time of starvation!  Sensing that God was punishing them for falling so easily into self-serving greed, the Pilgrim went to deep prayer and repentance … which led to the arrival of such rain that the crop was saved … as well as Pilgrim hearts.  And the crop was most bountiful.

But in putting on another Thanksgiving celebration with their Wampanoag friends, they started their first course with a plate simply of five corn kernels – a reminder of how it was that they were able to get through earlier starving times … thanks to God and God alone.  The lesson would not be lost on these Pilgrims.

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¹It would thus take them not seven years but twenty-five years to buy themselves free from these London "supporters" … repaying the Adventurers over those year 20,000 pounds in compensation for the 1,200 pounds originally put forward by those Adventurers … doing so in part by even having to sell property they still held back in England.