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Napoleon I Bonaparte (1804-1815)

1779 ordained as a priest; Later Abbot of Saint Denis;1789 became bishop; Agent general of the French clergy;

1792 to 1807 he was minister of foreign affairs in Revolutionary France; excommunicated by the pope in 1791 for his activities with the revolutionary government;

1815 - Louis the XVIII's Prime Minister; played a major role in the Congress of Vienna in 1815; 1815 removed by Louis XVIII from all public positions;

Louis-Stanislav-Xavier was a younger brother of Louis XVI of France, and grew up as the comte de Provence.  At age 16 he married Maria Jespha of Saxony--but they remained childless.  As a young man he thought of himself as a patron of the French enlightenment and studied and cultivated literature, philosophy and the arts.

When the French Revolution first broke out in 1789 he chose to remain in Paris--thinking perhaps to ingratiate himself with some of the leadership of the movement which at that time was still moderate in outlook.  But with with increasingly worsening conditions he decided to escape France for safer quarters.  He made his escape with a younger brother, Charles comte d'Artois, to Coblenz, just inside Germany.  His older brother, Louis XVI, however, headed off in another direction, was caught at Varennes, and was returned to Paris under guard.

In Coblenz, which became something of a French royal capital-in-exile, Louis directed the interests of the royal family and the large number of aristocratic emigrés gathered there.  From Coblenz he engineered diplomatic arrangements with various political sovereigns (such as Catherine the Great of Russia) to gain their support against the French Revolution.

With the execution of his brother Louis XVI in early 1793 and the elevation (in the eyes of the royalists) of his 7-year old son to the rights of the French throne as Louis XVII, Louis declared himself French Regent.   Then when in 1795 it was announced that the young Louis XVII had died in prison, Louis now took for himself the title of Louis XVIII.

In the meantime the French Revolutionary armies, now dedicated to the ending of the institution of monarchy in all of Europe, were becoming increasingly successful in their crusade.  This made it imperative for Louis and the royalist exiles to keep on the move--frequently at the request of their host governments.  He went from Germany to Italy, back to Germany, then to Poland (where he lived for three years), back to Germany, then to England (1809-1814).

Finally in 1814 a coalition of European monarchs defeated Napoleon and sent him off to prison on Elbe island--and Talleyrand's diplomacy within the coalition opened the way for Louis to return to France as King Louis XVIII.  Now securely in power (or so it seemed) Louis reaffirmed to the French nation his intention of ruling as a constitutional monarch--with a free press and the preservation of key economic and social reforms brought about by the Revolution.  But the more reactionary members of the emigrés or returned royalist party (in particular his brother Charles, known also as the Comte d'Artois) made things very difficult for him.

In any case, the news of Napoleon's escape from Elbe and the rapid gathering of French armies around Napoleon, forced Louis to flee to Belgium (the Hundred Days of Napoleon's return).  Only with Napoleon's defeat the following year (1815) at Waterloo was the way opened for Louis' return to France.

In the national elections that followed Louis' return to power a large monarchist majority was voted into the French Chamber.  Unfortunately a very radical or vindictive element of them (the Ultramontanists) tended to dominate proceedings--and Louis struggled to keep them from getting out of hand.  He was forced to accept Talleyrand as his prime minister.  He personally despised Tallyrand and removed him from influence as soon as he could.  He chose Elie Decazes (1818-1820) as his trusted minister--given the task of keeping the Ultras in line.

But in 1820 the situation was becoming increasingly chaotic and Decazes resigned.  Meanwhile Louis's age (he was 65 at this point) was telling on him.  It was getting harder for him to fend off the Ultras.  Increasingly power even within his own cabinet was passing out of his hands--in particular when he was forced to accept Villèle (1822-1824) as prime minister and to take on board his brother as a member of the cabinet.

The youngest son of Louis XV and brother of the ill-fated Louis XVI (executed by the French Revolution in 1793) and Louis XVIII.  He was given the title of comte d'Artois.

As a youth he was well known for his reckless, dissipated ways.  He succeeded in running up a massive personal debt of 56 million francs--which was picked up by the French royal treasury at a time when it could ill-afford such things.  Overall, his behavior earned him the contempt of the French people.  Sadly he so visibly represented all the things that they detested about the monarchy.

When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Charles, who had previously shown little interest in politics, now came to the fore (along with Marie Antoinette) as the leading voice of the royalist reaction.  He left France for exile to more freely serve the forces of the royalist reaction.  When in 1795 there was a pro-royalist uprising in the south of France (the Vendée), Charles appeared on the scene as its champion.  But he lost his nerve and refused to take effective command over the uprising--instead retreating to Great Britain, where he remained until 1814.

He returned to France with the Restoration of the Bourbon monarchy under his brother Louis XVIII--and presented himself as the leader of the extremist faction of the royalists, the Ultramontanists.  Once again his antics made rule by the Bourbon monarchy extremely difficult.  His brother had all he could do to keep Charles in line.  Eventually Louis tired of it all and in his last days simply gave over to the pressures of Charles.

As Louis was childless, Charles succeeded to the French throne with his brother's death in 1824.  It was quickly apparent that he did not intend to honor his brother's vow to rule in accordance with constitutional law.  His heart was with the rule of the monarchy by ancient Divine Right.  He had the very reactionary hierarchy of the Catholic Church, much of the restored aristocracy, and very conservative elements among the military officers behind him in this matter.  But he lost the support of the French nation itself--particularly the powerful French bourgeoise--with his high-handed ways.

He ended the freedom of the national press.  He placed on the French taxpayer a heavy financial burden of reparation payments to be made to the restored aristocracy.  He restored the influence of the Jesuits in the nation's major teaching institutions.  He disbanded the citizen army.

There were early warning signals that his regime was in trouble.  In 1829 he was urged to compromise with the interests of the incensed--and powerful--middle classes.  But his natural bent was not one of compromise.

When elections in early 1830 brought an increase in number of his opponents in the Chamber of Deputies, he responded by dissolving the Chamber in May and calling for new elections.  But this only increased the size of the opposition all the more.  At this point his personal advisers urged him to rule by his own authority--and he complied.  Charles was now totally out of touch with political reality in France.  In July he issued the Four Ordinances on behalf of his absolutist rule.

All hell broke loose.  The Parisians took to the streets in protest and Charles withdrew from Paris to Versailles and then to Rambouillet.  Finally realizing that he had irretrievably lost control of the situation he abdicated the throne in favor of his young grandson--and named Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans as Regent.  But Louis Philippe was himself proposed as the new king of France.  When news reached Charles that Louis Philippe had accepted the crown, Charles left France for England.  There he lived until his death six years later.

Louis Philippe was a distant cousin of the brothers Louis XVI, Louis XVIII and Charles X.  Although he too was a Bourbon, he preferred the Orléans identity of his more immediate ancestors.  He was the eldest son of Louis Philippe Joseph, duc d'Orléans, a man well received by the democratic-minded members of the French enlightenment.  Indeed, his father was popularly entitled, Philippe-Égalité.

When the French Revolution broke out in 1789 Louis Philippe himself was 16 years old.  He, with his father, considered themselves to be ardent supporters of the Revolution and its particular political ideals.  (His father even voted in late 1792 with the majority in the Constituent Assembly for the death of Louis XVI.)  He joined the Jacobins in 1790 and sat in on the the political debates of the National Assembly.  He soon thereafter joined the French army, becoming an colonel of the dragoons serving in the north of France.  By 1792 (age 18) he had become a lieutenant general in the revolutionary army--and participated in the Battle of Valmy and Jemappes in that same year.  In his service in the north he came under the command of Dumouriez--an individual who would have great importance to Louis Philippe.

In 1793 political fortunes took a new direction for Louis Philippe.  His father fell before the politics of Robbespierre and was executed in late 1793.  Also in early 1793 things did not go well for the French army (Neerwinden) that Louis Philippe was serving--and soon thereafter he was accused of participating in a plot with Dumouriez to overthrow the Republic.

Realizing the seriousness of his own personal position, Louis Philippe decided to flee--to Switzerland where he took on an assumed name (as much to avoid the wrath of the exiled royalists, or emigrés, as much as to avoid detection by the Republican authorities) and became a professor at a college there.  But with the death of his father he was now the duc d'Orléans--and head of the Orleanist party which (with Dumouriez' urging) wanted to put Louis Philippe forward as heir to the French throne.  All this made his personal situation all the more delicate.

In 1796 the Directory of the Revolution offered to release his mother and brothers imprisoned since 1793 on the condition that Louis Philippe would take himself and his family to America.  He agreed--and they came together in Philadelphia in 1797.

But news reached them that the radicals had been overthrown--and in 1800 Louis Philippe decided to return to France in the hope of offering himself as a royalist candidate for the restoration of a liberal-constitutional monarchy.  But he found on his arrival in France that Napoleon was securely ensconced in power and that any efforts to promote his royalist candidacy would be futile, even counter-productive.  Nonetheless, through the encouragement of Dumouriez, he soon thereafter made peace with the Bourbon pretenders to the French throne, Louis and Charles--though he still refused to be drawn into any fight for the royalist cause against the Republic.  Eventually he and his brothers settled in England.

Consumption overcame his brothers and in an effort to save his second brother he moved in 1808 to the Mediterranean where he hoped (futilely) that his brother could more easily recover.  Here he met and married Maria Amelia, the daughter of the king of Sicily--and here he remained until the Restoration of the monarcy in 1814.

He returned to France and received back the Orléans estate from Louis XVIII.  He joined the House of Peers--where he again became a spokesman for Liberal (or middle class) interests in France.  This again raised the suspicions of the ultraroyalists, especially Charles, comte d'Artois, brother of the King.  Once again, in 1815, he had to take up the road of exile, returning to England where he spent the next two years.

He kept a low profile during the reign of Louis XVIII--and through most of the reign of Charles X.  But as it was becoming increasingly clear in the late 1820s that Charles was losing political support in France, the Orleanists began discreetly to plan with Louis Philippe his possible accession to the French throne.  His years of remaining true to the ideals of Liberalism were now coming to fruition.

When in July of 1830 the reign of Charles X simply collapsed under its own political ineptitude, the Chamber of Deputies turned to Louis Philippe to take over the monarchy.  Louis Adolphe Thiers headed a delegation which invited him to become King of the French--Louis Philippe I, the "citizen king."  In a dramatic appearance before the Chamber (Louis Philippe was wearing the tricolor of French Republicanism) he accepted their  invitation.

As a "bourgeois king," Louis Philippe identified himself with the industrial interests of the country.  He encouraged the development of French railways.  He was heavy handed in putting down the radical Socialists, whom the bourgeoise passionately detested.

But he was by instinct still a Bourbon--and found it increasingly impossible not to resort to authoritarian practices when faced with opposition to his policies.  Finally, when his personal diplomacy drew him in on the side of monarchist interests in Switzerland in late 1840s, he succeeded in fully alienating Liberal feelings in France.  With that he had cut himself off from his one major source of power in France.

In February of 1848 the Parisians again took to the streets in revolt.  Louis Philippe fled France under disguise--arriving in England where he would spend the last two years of his life.

Louis was the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte whom he clearly modeled himself after.  He took up an early career as a military adventurer in Italy and tried on two occasions to overthrow the French monarchy of Louis Philippe, the latter occasion in 1840 earning him a prison life-sentence.  He escaped from prison in 1846, made his way to England and returned to France with the onset of the February Revolution of 1848.  He succeeded in having himself elected President (1848) of the new Second Republic.  But soon (1852) he himself dismantled this Republic and replaced it with the Second Empire of France (1852)--with himself as its Emperor.

He undertook the industrial modernization of France and proved himself to be a true benefactor in this regard.

For more information on Louis Napoleon

He was part of the 1830 Revolution which overthrew the Bourbon monarchy--and was brought onto the cabinet of the new king, Louis Philippe.  Here he served in various offices, including that of prime minister.  In 1836 he resigned and began a time of traveling.  But he returned to France and to French politics a second time in 1838.  In 1840 he was invited to rejoin the French cabinet--although he remained only 6 months before resigning and returning to simpler parliamentary service.  At this point he turned  to the writing of his second historical series: History of the Consulate and the Empire (1840-1855).

When the February Revolution broke out in 1848 he aligned himself with the republican forces.  In Napoleon III's coup establishing the Second Empire, Thiers was arrested and expelled from France for a year.  On his return he again devoted himself to his historical writings.  Not until 1863, when Louis Napoleon began to liberalize his rule, did Thiers return to French political life.  Again a leader in parliament, he became the spokesman for the political faction opposing Louis Napoleon, especially the Emperor's risky diplomatic ventures.

When Louis Napoleon fell from power in 1870 Thiers was elected president of the National Assembly and thus found himself de facto head of France.  He negotiated peace with the Germans to formally end the state of war between France and Prussia and convinced the National Assembly to accept the quite humiliating terms of peace being offered by the Germans (the French, under the circumstances, had no real options in the matter).

It was at this time that the Marxists attempted to seize control of French Government by calling for an uprising in the working class sections of Paris and setting up the Paris Commune.  Thiers led the effort of the republicanist National Assembly to crush the Commune--which it carried out with much bloodshed.

In 1871 Thiers was elected President of the new Third Republic--a Republic that was considered at the time to be a quite provisional institution--as the vast majority of the French were still highly monarchist at heart.  It seemed to be only the monarchist stalemate among  the Bourbonists, the Orleanists and the Bonapartists that kept the Third Republic in place (note however that the Third Republic lasted until 1940!)

Thiers' major works or writings:

 

British Prime Minister, 1885, 1886-1892, 1895-1902.

Secretary of State for India, 1866-1867 and 1874-1877.  Chancellor of Oxford University, 1870-1874.  Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1877-1880.   Leader of the House of Lords, 1881-1885.

Rhodes was born in Hertforshire, England in 1853.  He grew up suffering from a weakness in his lungs and was thus sent off to a brother's cotton farm in South Africa where it was hoped that more salutory air might repair his condition.  He grew attached to South Africa and decided to make his fortune there.  He became involved in the diamond mining business (Kimberley mines) near Johannesburg in the Transvaal--at the same time that he pursued the typical gentlemen's education at Oxford University back in England.

He was highly interested in public affairs--for the economic contacts and opportunities that politics afforded.  He became a member of the House of Assembly of the Cape Colony, enabling him eventually (1884) to secure official sanctioning for the taking of the Bantu tribal region of Bechuanaland as a British protectorate.  Likewise he used his influence to secure a charter for the British South Africa Company with powers to govern (with even military powers) territories to the north of the Transvaal (the area that would later become known as "Rhodesia":  modern-day Zimbabwe and Zambia)

He was also an excellent organizer and in 1888 brought together a number of South African diamond mining companies to form the De Beers Consolidated Mines Company.

But the Afrikaner-Dutch or "Boer" Republic of the Transvaal remained highly problematic for him--for he could not get the Boers to cooperate with his desire to fully exploit the mineral wealth which lay in their territory.  When gold was discovered near the Tranvaal capital of Pretoria, Rhodes could not keep himself from wheeling-dealing in order to bring the area under his control.

He was prime minister of the Cape Colony when the ill-fated Jameson raid into the Transvaal was discovered to point back to his scheming--and Rhodes was forced to resign.

But finally the Boer War (1899-1902) between England and the Afrikaner Republic of the Transvaal gave Rhodes the opportunity to move on his own as he had long wished--or so he thought.  It was a dirty little war fought by desperate Boer farmers against British regulars through guerrilla tactics.  The British retaliated by an equally ruthless strategy of burning Boer farms and placing Boer women and children into protective camps (concentration camps really).  World opinion began to form against the British and finally the British were able to "win" the war by agreeing to give the Boers tremendous voting powers in a united South Africa.

Rhodes however died in the year that ended the Boer War.

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Otto von Bismarck (1871-1890)

Wilhelm I (King of Prussia, Emperor of Germany 1861-1888)

The fourth American President (1809-1817).

One of the major architects of the United States Constitution.  One of the three authors (along with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay) of the Federalist Papers, written for the American public in explanation and support of the new Federal Constitution.

He served as Secretary of State during Jefferson's presidency (1801-1809).

He had the misfortune of serving as American President during the near catastrophic War of 1812 (actually 1812-1815)--when Washington, DC was burned to the ground by invading British troops.

Third American Vice President (1801-05)--serving under Thomas Jefferson, whom he nearly defeated in 1801 for the position of third American President.

He killed his arch political rival, Alexander Hamilton, in a duel in 1804.

In 1807 he was arrested for treason in an apparent attempt to seize Mexico--and possibly also the Western American territories--and set himself up as dictator on the Napoleonic model.  The evidence against him was not sufficient to hold him and he left for Europe where he then apparently tried (unsuccessfully) to gain the support of Napoleon in conquering Florida.

In 1812 he returned to New York and quietly practiced law until his death in 1836.

Some of Marshall's major court decisions:

McCulloch vs. Maryland (1819)  The federal government had the right to create federal banks to help it regulate the national currency; a state did not have the right to tax such a federal bank.

Cohens vs. Virginia (1821)  The Court agreed with the State of Virginia that the Cohens had no right to sell lottery tickets in violation of Virginia law.  But the claim of Virginia that the Supreme Court had no appellate jurisdiction over the laws of Virginia was not valid either.  Indeed, though the 11th Amendment prevented a citizen of one state suing another state, to Marshall this implied that a citizen by necessity had the right to appeal a state action to the federal courts.

Gibbons vs. Ogden (1824)  The grant of a federal judge licensing Gibbons to operate a ferryboat between New York and New Jersey took precedence over the assignment by the state of New York of such exclusive ferryboat rights to Ogden.  Marshall cited the interstate commerce clause of the constitution as the grounds for this federal claim to sole authority in regulating all business transactions which cross state lines--transportation and communications as well as commerce in goods.

Brown vs. Maryland (1827)  Only the federal government has the right to levy taxes and regulate the trade of goods coming from abroad.

Worcester vs. Georgia (1832)  The State of Georgia had no legal jurisdiction over the Cherokee lands recognized as sovereign in an1827 treaty with the federal government.  [US President Jackson, however, refused to enforce the Court's decision].

James Monroe (1817-1825)

Fifth American President (1817-1825).

Andrew Jackson (1815-1837)

Seventh American President (1829-1837).

US Congressman and Senator from Kentucky (at various times during the period 1806-1852), frequently elected speaker of the House of Representatives (during the period 1811-1824), Secretary of State under John Quincy Adams (1824-1828) and twice unsuccessful Whig candidate for the American Presidency (1832, 1844).

At first, during the early part of his political career, Calhoun was an ardent American nationalist.  But in mid-life he turned into an equally ardent defender of states' rights--and slavery.

Calhoun tried three times unsuccessfully to become American President. But he did serve as Secretary of War under James Madison (1817) and as American Vice President (1825-1832) under John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson.

In 1832 he resigned as Jackson's Vice President and became a US Senator, representing South Carolina.  This was when he took up the cause of states' rights, proposing (in debate with Daniel Webster) the principal of "nulification" by which a state should be able to veto an act of Congress if it did not approve of the measure--and as with the Presidential veto, would require a 2/3's vote of Congress of overturn the veto.  However, even the other Southern Senators however were reluctant to go this far in pressing "states rights."

1801-1877.

He was born in Vermont but his family moved to New York three years later.  At age 16 he left home and began work as an itinerant carpenter and painter and even farmer.  In 1824 he married and in 1829 he and his wife moved to Mendon New York, near where Mormon activity was just getting underway.  He joined Joseph Smith's new church in 1832 and that same year embarked on his first missionary journey, to Canada.  In 1833, now being a widower, he gathered friends and family and moved to Ohio to join Joseph Smith.  He then joined a group in Missouri to help shore up their courage in the face of the persecution they were encountering there.  The following year, 1835, he was elected one of the church's 12 Apostles..  It was Young that directed the move that same year to Illinois when the movement was forced out of Missouri.

He then journeyed to England (1840-1841) to establish a mission which would spread the movement to Europe.    In 1841 because of his work he had risen to the position of being the foremost Apostle in rank behind the Prophet Joseph Smith

In 1844, when Joseph Smith was killed, he left Boston, where he had been conducting missionary activity, and returned to Illinois to direct the church during this time of confusion.  As the persecution only worsened the decision was made to move West.  In 1846 Young led the Mormons out of Illinois to a winter settlement in Nebraska and in 1847 directed an advance party to and through the Rocky Mountains--to found a new settlement next to Utah's Great Salt Lake.  At this point his leading role among the Mormons was confirmed in his election to the position of Prophet.  In 1848, he led a larger migration of Mormons from Nebraska to the Utah site.

Young remained in firm leadership of the Mormon Church all the way to his death in 1877.  During this time Young was not only very active in encouraging Mormon missions throughout the West, designed to establish new Mormon settlements, but he also was a strong encourager of education and the arts.  But his main program during his last years was to keep Utah tightly in the hands of the Mormons, against the increasing numbers of non-Mormons migrating into the territory, especially after the transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869.  He organized Mormon industry and farming into cooperatives that could undercut non-Mormon competition, and he extended the vote to women in order to dilute the vote of the heavily male "gentiles" moving into the territory.

Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865)

A graduate of Transylvania College and then West Point (1828) he served in various military positions until 1835 when he resigned to marry and start a plantation near Vicksburg, Mississippi.  But his wife died only a few months after their marriage and Davis buried his sorrow in reading and cutting his plantation out of a wilderness.  In 1845 he emerged from his seclusion in taking a seat in the US House of Representatives and in marrying again.  But the next year he resigned his Congressional seat to rejoin the army as a colonel in the Mexican-American War.  He became the hero of the Battle of Buena Vista in 1847 and at war's end became a US Senator serving on the Military Affairs Committee.  In 1853 his experience and knowledge in military matters caused him to be appointed as Secretary of War by US President Pierce.

As the emotional split deepened between the North and the South, Davis urged conciliation rather than separation.  When South Carolina seceeded from the Union upon Lincoln's election to the US Presidency in 1860, Davis still was holding out for national unity.

But with Mississippi's decision in January of 1861 to secede from the Union Davis followed the decision of his state and withdrew from the US Senate.  When Confederate delegates gathered in Montgomery, Alabama to put together a new governement, Davis was elected President of the new Confederacy.  One of Davis' first acts was to send a peace delegation to Washington to meet with Lincoln to press for a peaceful withdrawal of the Southern states from the Union.  But Lincoln would not recognize the delegation or the right of any state to withdraw from the Union.  When Lincoln moved to strengthen the US military position at Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, Davis gave the order to attack the Fort--and the first shots of the Civil War were fired (1861).

Davis had to build up the Confederacy's war-making capacity almost from nothing--for the South had neither a navy or a strong industrial base to manufacture the necessary weapons of war.  Important to the Southern effort was the diplomatic recognition of the Confederacy by the European powers--and Davis busied his government heavily around this goal.  While he succeeded in the task of preparing the South for war, he was never able to acomplish the necessary diplomatic goals.

During the War Davis remained a close, trusting suporter of Lee, whom he had appointed as supreme commander of the Southern forces.  Otherwise, Davis' presidency was constantly troubled by in-fighting and political intrigue.

When Lee surrendered his army to Grant at Appomatox, Davis tried to continue the war effort on the basis of his own military expertise.  But he was captured by Union forces and imprisoned as a traitor.  Only sympathy for his declining health under the terrible prison conditions led to his release in 1867--whereupon he moved to Canada to try to rubuild his strength.  In 1868 the charges of treason against Davis were dropped.  However still believing to the end that the states had the full right to secede and that he had broken no constitutional laws, he refused to ask for ask for amnesty, and thus never had his American citizenship restored to him (except posthumously in 1978).

Robert E. Lee (1861-1865)

Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson

Ulysses S. Grant

William T. Sherman

Oil magnate:  he started refining oil in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1862 and in 1870 founded the Standard Oil Company (Ohio).  He moved to take over other oil refineries--until by the early 1880s he had succeeded in holding a near monopoly of oil production in the United States.

In 1890 a strong anti-trust mood in the United States led to Congress's passing the Sherman Anti-Trust Act--directed at such trusts as Standard Oil, which was the largest of them all.  Rockefeller tried to dodge this law by breaking the company into "separate" state corporations--which were still held together by a single diretorate, incorporated in 1899 as the holding company, Standard Oil of New Jersey.  In 1911 the US Supreme Court held that this arrangement violated the Sherman Anti-Trust Act and broke up the holding company.

But by this time Rockefeller had turned his interests to works of philanthropy--especially those related to university education in America.  In his lifetime he and his Rockefeller Foundation gave away 500 million dollars in education grants.

Simón Bolívar (Liberator of South America 1808-1830)

Paul Kruger (1877-1902)