Hegel was born and educated
in Stuttgart in the classics and attended the University of Tübingen,
studying philosophy and the classics in preparation for the ministry.
He graduated in 1790 and then took up the formal study of theology.
However he disliked strongly the doctrinal rigidity of his teachers. Hegel
had a much freer spirit--and enjoyed the robust company of such friends
as Schelling (5 years his junior) and Hölderlin. He delighted
in the reading of Greek tragedies and the exciting accounts of the French
Revolution. Thus in finishing his theological studies he decided
against the ministry and opted instead for work that would allow him to
continue his studies of history, the classics and philosophy. Thus
he found work tutoring, first in Switzerland then in Frankfurt.
For a while he was strongly
influenced by the philosophy of Kant--especially the notion that the real
basis of Christianity was not in the legalistic religious doctrines evolved
over the centuries by the Christian church--but in the inherent moral "Reason"
contained in the teachings and example of Jesus. But ultimately it
was not the "moral reason" of Jesus that inspired Hegel--but instead the
idea that, in and through Jesus as revelation of the divine, the Spirit
of God had spoken to the human heart of eternal truths. These were
much loftier and idealistic concepts than Kant's moral principles.
Hegel Begins to Stray from Kantianism
Thus in the late 1790s
Hegel wrote a treatise (not published until 1907) entitled Der Geist
des Christentums und sein Schicksal" ("The Spirit of Christianity and Its
Fate"). In this his interest in the Spirit of Christianity--rather
than its inherent "reasonableness" (as per Kant) was the focus of study.
In this also his use of developmental history as the groundwork for the
presentation of his ideas was also introduced.
This work began with a study
of ancient Judaism and its Law, proceeded through the development of Greek
and Roman philosophy and religion (for which he had a deep fondness) and
then arrived at the revolutionary ideas introduced by Jesus. Hegel
saw in Jesus principle which united man and God, a principle higher than
all that had gone before him. This principle was not that of religion
with its laws and doctrines--but instead the principle of love, a
deep, a spiritual connection of man with the very essence of God.
This for Hegel constituted the Kingdom of God that Jesus had come to proclaim
and open up to mankind.
In 1801 he returned to his
studies, this time at the University of Jena (in Prussia)--where he joined
his friend Schelling in a philosophical assault on entrenched Kantian philosophy.
With a bit of an inheritance from his deceased father, he was able to function
as a fee-based lecturer until he finally received a regular appointment
to the faculty at the university.
In that same year he published
an essay, "Differenz des Fichte'schen und Schelling'schen Systems der Philosophie,"
which bears witness of his close philosophical association with Schelling's
rather romantic philosophy of nature.
Jena: Phenomenology
of the Mind
But with Schelling's departure
from Jena in 1803 Hegel moved more decidedly toward systematic philosophy.
In 1806 he completed a very serious systematic study of philosophy entitled
Phenomenology
of the Mind--just in time to flee Jena from the approaching French
armies.
This work focuses on the
evolutionary development of human thought, through the stages of mere consciousness,
then self- consciousness, then reason, then spirit and religion, and finally
to absolute knowledge. Knowledge of the sense-world (achieved through
modern science) around man is only a starting point for Hegel in the development
of human consciousness. Higher than such knowledge is the kind of
consciousness that connects the human spirit with the transcending Absolute
Spirit. Scientific or rational knowledge acts analytically--to separate
the objects of knowledge into discreet categories. It also separates,
even isolates, the human Geist (mind or spirit) from the reality around
it. While such reason is useful to human life, it is not itself the
highest or ultimate atainment of the human spirit. That comes
in a process of unification--not separation--of the human consciousness
with the reality around it. Along the way in the process the human
mind passes through several stages of development: from mere consciousness
to a maturer self-consciousness, to the realm of reason, but then also
to the stage of connection with the larger realm of reality through revealed
religion and its formal declarations, to finally a virtually mystical bond
with Absolute Reality. Here the human mind comes to know itself as
pure spirit--in its union with the pure spirit of the Absolute. This
is what Christianity, as presented by Jesus, is ultimately all about.
The next couple of years
were hard ones for Hegel. He finally found employment with the Bamberger
Zeitung as an editor (1807-08)--though this was hardly a stable source
of employment. In 1808 he found more reliable work as a director of a
gymnasium
in Nürnberg--a position which he held until 1816.
In 1812 he published Die
objektive Logik, which was the first part of his Wissenschaft der
Logik ("Science of Logic"); in 1816 a second part of this work was
published as Die subjecktive Logik.
Heidelberg: Encyclopaedia
of the Philosophical Sciences
In 1816 he became a professor
at the University of Heidelberg. Based on his lecture notes, he published
in 1817 a new work, Encyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften
im Grundrisse ("Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Outline").
Undergirding this work was the motif of struggle--struggle of the human
spirit or mind through various trials to reach or fulfill itself in a higher
union with God. God, also from his side of things, reaches out to
the struggling human spirit by becoming himself human (and thus limited)--to
struggle alongside man to overcome the finite human condition. God,
or Absolute Spirit, is also engaged with man in the process of working
toward a final stage of complete self-consciousness--as part of the history
of creation.
Using the dialectical
method (the step by step evolution of a thought or idea through the
struggle of contradicting propositions in the quest of a higher level of
truth), Hegel outlines how God began creation with pure thought about categories
of being that he proposed to bring to life. These were reflections
of the Absolute's thoughts about himself. This pure thought moves
from the theoretical to the actual--by first approaching the very nothingness
of physical reality that posed itself in the beginning. Out of this
nothingness is formed the first, earliest stage of the actual. And
into this early stage is introduced human consciousness, functioning at
its most primitive original level of consciousness. From this point
God and man (the Absolute and the Finite) are joined in a dialectical process
of reaching toward each other in a process of self-realization--a process
that moves both sides through a dialectical process of raising each other
to ever higher levels of realization. In this God is as dependent
on man as man is dependent on God for their mutual realization.
Berlin: Philosophy
of Right
In 1818 Hegel moved to Berlin
to become a professor at the University of Berlin. Here he remained
until his death in 1831. In 1821 he published his Grundlinien
der Philosophie des Rechts (Philosophy of Right). Here
Hegel was trying to demonstrate, again through his dialectical method,
the path to a just political/social order. On the one hand
society consists of laws which are necessary for the good ordering of life.
But man also possesses a free conscience and the obligation to exercise
this conscience as part of his dignity. It is in the struggle to
balance the need for a legal order and a realm of responsible personal
freedom that the just society emerges. The dangers are always the
emergence of not a synthesis between these two tendencies, but the victory
of one tendency over the other: a legal tyranny or an anarchy of
human wilfullness. For Hegel the closest model for an ideal state
was the family and the medieval guild--there being no such just realm known
to him at that time within the larger political world. His hope was
that the urge to justice was producing the very birth of such a higher
political state.
His Fame Spreads
By the time of his publication
of the Philosophy of Right his reputation was well established in
Germany--if not also in all of Europe. A seat in his lectures was
a prized possession for any student. Careful notes were taken
of his lectures--which was where his work now was wholly contained.
His interest in the wider
realm of philosophy, art, religion, science also broadened during this
time.
But overall his work remained
the same: to demonstrate that history was a working out of the will
of God through an ever-heightening human consciousness. Man was moving
into an era of careful human thought--motivated by a deep devotion to God.
The end product for Hegel was indeed the outworking of the Kingdom of Heaven
here on earth--as the fulfilment of the promise that Jesus had made so
long ago.
His Posthumous Publications
After his death in 1831 during
a cholera epidemic which swept through Germany,his lecture notes were compiled
into a number of publications: Philosophy of Fine Art (1835-38),
History
of Philosophy (1833-36), Philosophy of Religion (1832), and
Philosophy of History (1837). |