THE PROPHETIC TRADITION OF THE ANCIENT ISRAELITES

Nathan (during reign of King David: 1010-970 BC) God's guardian over royal moral integrity Elijah (during reign of King Ahab of Israel: 874-853 BC) challenger of the idolatry of Israel Micaiah ben-Imlah (contemporary of Elijah's) challenger of the venality of the cultic prophets Elisha (mid-late 800s BC) bizarre disciple of Elijah's Amos (c. 750 ) warnings to the venal in Israel    Hosea (740-730?) warnings to the unfaithful in Israel   Micah (late 700s) God's case against Judah    Isaiah (2nd half of 700s) Issues a prophecy of destruction--and a surviving remnant--both Israel and Judah.  All nations are the creation and the instruments of the will of God Zephaniah (late 600s) The Lord's judgment on Jerusalem's apostacy is near (but a remnant surviving) King Josiah (late 600s) 621 BC:  Worship reforms in Judaism following the recovery of the copy of the Torah--and renewal of the covenant of Moses (the Deuteronomic covenant) Nahum (late 600s) God will deliver his people from Assyria    Habakkuk (end of the 600s) We must trust God to deliver us from the new tyrant, Babylon Jeremiah (late 600s - early 500s) God's judgment: not just on outer moral/liturgical behavior--but on the predisposition of the human heart; the promise of a new covenant based on such spirituality    Ezekiel (early 500s - from captivity in Babylon: before/after the destruction of Jerusalem in 587 BC) Warnings of impending destruction; promise of a "New Jerusalem" to arise from the remnant "Second Isaiah" (after 539? - from captivity in Babylon) The remnant from Judah must now trust the Lord, the God of all creation, to lead them out of captivity and back to a New Jerusalem--where as a "purged" Suffering Servant (referring to Israel or its king or both?) they will humbly serve as a witness to the greatness of God before all the world "Third Isaiah" (late 500s? - after the return to Jerusalem) A reminder to honor God through compassion for the poor and the outcast.

JESUS OF NAZARETH THE MESSIAH (CHRIST)

Standing at the heart of the Christian faith was the belief that Jesus of Nazareth, a charismatic teacher and healer operating chiefly in the Judean province of Galilee, was indeed the long-awaited Messiah--the Son of David and of God. His believers believed strongly that he had been sent by God to usher in a New Age of God's Divine Rule:  the Kingdom of Heaven come to earth. Indeed, Jesus himself had announced over and over again the coming of this eternal Kingdom. Jesus is a figure that is almost impossible to pin down historically.  It is faith--not facts--that seems to define him as a historical personage.  True, we do have the accounts of his brief (3-year?) ministry contained in the 4 gospels.  But these appear to be more the testimonies of faith about his very nature or being than true "history" as we think of it today.  The apostle Paul, whose Christian writings seem to be the earliest we have on record, was almost totally silent about the actual life of Jesus.  Also, little attention to or understanding of him was made by the larger Roman world until centuries after Jesus had come and gone.  Thus the "historical" Jesus is a matter of faith's speculation rather than hard fact.  2000 years of on-going debate on the matter attest to that fact. Nonetheless, we can make this much out about Jesus on the basis of the reports of his early followers.  In his teachings and "signs" (healings, exorcisms) Jesus strongly represented God as a deeply loving and concerned God--a "Father" to his human creation.  Jesus spoke forth of a God who dearly wanted His "children" to avoid over-reliance on worldly institutions and to embrace with full faith the power of His providential care.  God wanted them to trust Him--to give themselves over fully to His care. Jesus at times put this matter pretty bluntly. We could trust in our own devices--even our own "virtues" to get us through life.  But this was not really going to get us into "eternity"--into God's Kingdom.  Such worldly achievements would die with us at the end of our earthly life.  Only surrender of these very self-serving instincts (including the desire to make ourselves moral "superiors") and a willingness to take up truly sacrificial living, living beyond ourselves--living for God and neighbor, would bring us full blessing, joy, peace--and eternal life. Clearly this message did not sit well with the "accomplished" and "virtuous" citizens of his times. Apparently he argued frequently with them.  And it seems fairly clear that this was the group responsible for having him put to death as a dangerous trouble-maker. For more information on Jesus

THE TRANSLATORS OF THE PALESTINIAN GOSPEL INTO A GRECO-ROMAN GOSPEL

Paul (mid first century) His faith in Jesus was based upon his own very unique personal encounter with the Risen Lord--on the road to Damascus where he was originally headed in order to begin arresting and putting to death the followers of this new "Way" of Jesus Christ.  His conversion was abrupt, painful, and thorough.  From Christ-hater he became Christ-proclaimer, one of the most important agents in spreading the Christian Gospel to the broader Greco-Roman world. Interestingly, in his collected letters to the various churches that he had either founded or greatly influenced, he mentions almost nothing about the actual life of Jesus. Rather, he reflects on Jesus as a covenant sign of God's doings on earth. In Paul's early writings (the letters to the Thessalonians) he emphasizes the return of the Lord Jesus (the "Day of the Lord") as a great act of cosmic judgment on all creation. But his later writings switch emphasis to the spiritual efficacy of faith in Christ as the Atoning Sacrifice for our sins, the power of God's Spirit given to those who live under the Lordship of Jesus Christ, and the unique role of the new church, the "Body" of the "Living Christ" in an unfolding of Divine history. Interestingly, there were almost "Dionysian" elements to Paul's version of the gospel:  Jesus was Man-God who died for us, descended into Hades or Hell, where in a struggle with evil and death, he was victorious, and was raised from the dead as a sign of God's promise to all of us of similar rescue from evil and death. But, as Paul pointed out, Jesus was no mythological character:  he was real and the event had actually happened in history in a definite place (Jerusalem) and at a definite time (Passover).  Thus this Gospel touched so powerfully the Dionysian hearts of the Greco-Roman commoners of the Empire. For more information on the Apostle Paul Mark Mark's Gospel (written perhaps around 70 AD for the church in Rome), a story of the life and death of Jesus the Christ, was more than just a simple biography of Jesus.  It was actually a theological treatise which used the "story" to give an account of the powers and authority of the person of Jesus Christ.  Mark's Gospel was used liturgically (read in worship) as a declaration of faith:  faith in the One who was soon to return in Judgment--as the empty tomb implied. This Gospel of Mark was possibly supplemented by another Secret Gospel of Mark, lost to us today, which was accessible only to the "initiates":  those baptized and entitled to share the Eucharist John (second half of first century) John, who was one of the original 12 disciples of Jesus, was the only disciple to not suffer death for his faith (though he faced a life of continuing imprisonment) and lived to an old age--where he eventually put down his own reflections (the Gospel of John) on the meaning of the life and death of Jesus the Christ. In these reflections he introduced the philosophy of Plato into Christian theology as he stressed over and over that Jesus was the Divine Logos--the perfect representation of the essence of God. This Jesus was the true Logos--which was the very mind of God and thus with God from even the beginning of all things.  This Logos was found fully within Jesus--so that the person of Jesus and the person of the Logos were indistinguishable.  John did not explain how this came to be:  he merely posited it as being so--by God's doing (unlike the miraculous birth accounts of Matthew and Luke which set out to explain the source of Jesus' divinity in his birth) This use of the Logos concept was not exactly an unprecedented approach:   Platonism was very popular as the standard of high-minded thinking among the more literate classes of the empire--and Judaism was doing the same translation of its religion into Platonist language through the works of the Jewish scholar Philo (whose works had a great influence on Christianity as well).

THE EARLY CHRISTIAN APOLOGISTS AND MARTYRS (WITNESSES) (Early 100s AD)

Clement, Bishop/Presbyter of Rome (late first century: d. ca. 100) In his Letter to Corinth, "1 Clement" (ca. 95), he deals with the issue of establishing an orderly (apostolic) succession of leaders among the elders and speaks against Judaizing and docetic influences in Corinth. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch (fl. early 100s) Ignatius wrote a number of letters while on the way to Rome to be executed.  In these, he urges the churches to build a ministerial pattern of one bishop and several presbyters and deacons.  The bishop was to have the key responsibility of maintaining the unity of the church and its doctrines against the diverse interests pulling at the churches. Ignatius' letters: To Polycarp To the Ephesians To the Magnesians To the Philadelphians To the Romans To the Smyrneans To the Trallians Papias, Bishop of Phrygia (fl. early 100s) Papias' major works or writings: Exposition of the Oracles of the Lord (fragments) Polycarp (martyred. ca. 160) Polycarp was reputed to be a direct disciple of the apostle John.  He eventually became Bishop of Smyrna. The story of  his martyrdom as an old man was widely circulated throughout the early church as a testimony of faith. Papias' major works or writings: The Martyrdom of Polycarp Epistle to the Philippians

THE EARLY DEFINERS OF THE FAITH: THE PRE-NICENE FATHERS (150 to 300 AD)

Justin "Martyr" (d. 165) Justin underwent his own philosophical/spiritual journey as a young man. Along the way he studied Stoicism, Aristotelianism, Pythagorism, Platonism. He finally became a convert to Christianity on the basis of the integrity and bravery of its martyrs. Became a teacher in Rome--and died a martyr there rather than sacrifice to the gods. He took up the task of relating Christianity to Greek philosophy--especially Platonism (which he still respected). He stressed (along with the gospel-writer John) that Christ was the Logos. He claimed also that Plato had been inspired by the Old Testament. And finally he put forth the idea that Christianity was the completion of what earlier Greek philosophers were trying to arrive at. Justin's major works or writings: First Apology (ca. 150) Justin explains Christ as the Divine Logos--the mediator between Creator and created Second Apology Dialogue with Trypho In this conversation with the Jewish Trypho, Justin put forth a Platonist position with emphasis on the self-revelation of God through Jesus Christ--"wisdom" incarnate On the Sole Government of God Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons (ca. 130-202) Irenaeus was born into a Greek Christian family of Asia Minor. He became a disciple of Polycarp--but was also influenced by Justin's philosophy. He moved to Lyons (Gaul or France) as a young man, becoming a presbyter there--in 177 succeeding the martyred bishop and living on at Lyons until his death possibly at the beginning of the 200s. He took up the theological task of refuting the Gnostic heresy.  His writings give us much of our knowledge (negatively biased, of course) of the Gnostics.  The Gnostic claim of possessing special secret knowledge not given to other Christians he refuted with the claim that the apostles would have passed such knowledge on to the churches they themselves founded and loved--if such knowledge had actually existed. Also--he noted that the apostolic churches all proclaimed the same set of doctrines out of a well recognized set of apostolic writings (the New Testament)--outweighing, by way of true authority, the ridiculous and contradictory innovations of the Gnostics and their writings. He was opposed to Montanism--but urged the church not to condemn this movement without careful thought on the matter. Irenaeus' major works or writings: Against Heretics Clement of Alexandria (Titus Flavius Clemens) (ca. 150-215) He was born a Greek pagan, but converted to Christianity and studied under a number of Christian teachers--principally Pantaenus, head of the Christian school in Alexandria (whom he succeeded in around 190) Egypt at the time was falling heavily under the influence of Gnosticism. Clement took up the cause of defending orthodox Christianity through demonstrating its conformity to well accepted Greek philosophy--proving orthodox Christianity to be thus a higher version of Christianity (and also the consummation of Greek philosophy). Clement's answer to Gnosticism was to demonstrate true Christian "gnosis": the discipline of ethical living and the disciplined contemplation of God. But Clement himself was subject to some of the Gnostic negative views about the natural life: Jesus surely did not need to eat, drink and sleep like mere mortals--but did so that his disciples might not get the wrong idea about him (docetism). He strongly laid the case for the impassability (emotionlessness) of God--which was also the vision of God held by the Greek philosophers--and also the ideal of the Christian seeking after God. We also are beholden to him for our knowledge today about certain aspects of the ancient Greek mystery religions and popular philosophies of the day.  His Exhortation to the Heathens/Greeks is a careful, point by point refutation of the major doctrines of these religious and philosophical movements.  He writes so knowledgeably because he himself had once been a part of their world.  He still thought highly of Greek philosophy and believed that Plato and others had helped opened the way for the Gospel through their own doctrines which were not necessarily in opposition to the Gospel. Clement of Alexandria's major works or writings: Exhortation to the Heathens/Greeks Instructor/Tutor The Stromata/Miscellanies Tertullian (ca. 160-225) Tertullian was a Latin Carthaginian who was born a pagan and trained in rhetoric and the law. He converted to Christianity just before the turn of the century. He seems to have remained all his life a teacher--probably never becoming a bishop or even presbyter. But he was an excellent writer in Latin--and very influential in formulating Latin theology. He tended to be a religious legalist who dedicated himself to the idea that the faith should be confined tightly within the parameters of a well worked out line of Orthodox theology. Indeed, he demonstrated an (unacknowledged) intellectual debt to Stoicism--with all its religious rigorousness. He was a very strong opponent of monarchianism (Sabellius)--laying out one of the earliest Orthodox statements on the nature of the Trinity. However, he departed from the Greek Christian theologians (such as Justin) who saw Christianity as being in harmony with Greek philosophy, noting the distinction which exists between rational knowledge and faith; faith is God-given and not open to the speculations of the human mind. Eventually he became a Christian Montanist--admiring its moral rigor. Indeed, he became very critical of the "established" church for its leniency in dealing with on-going sins of Christians--even changing his mind about the possibility of a second repentance for a back-slider. Tertullian's major works or writings: Apology (197)  defending the good citizenship of the Christians and citing the injustice of their martyrdom by Roman authorities Proscription against the Heretics  a short, general treatise against early heresies Against Marcion  against the Gnosticism of Marcion Against Praxeas  in opposition to the monarchianism (and anti-Montanism) of Praxeas; formulated the Latin terminology of God as being of "one substance" in "three persons" To the Martyrs (197) Patience (197)  Spectacles Prayer (200) Modesty a rigorist view of the faith A Treatise on the Soul Origen (ca. 185-254) Origen was born into a Christian family in Alexandria. His father was martyred in 202--leaving a very deep impression on Origen. He studied under Neo-Platonist Ammonius Saccas (also teacher of Plotinus) and lived in Alexandria as a teacher at the catechetical school, until he had a falling out with the Alexandrian bishop. He then moved to Caesarea in Palestine where he continued his work. He lived the life--up until he began to have second thoughts on the matter as an older man--of an ascetic. He remained true to the faith, suffering severe torture in the Decian persecution of (249-251)--dying a few years later from the effects of this treatment. Origen was a prolific expositor of the Bible (carefully studying Scripture verse by verse). But he viewed its content as allegory--used to lead the reader to a "deeper," more spiritual meaning of Scripture. [Note: this was a principle well established in Greek learning and used widely in the study of the ancient Greek legends. Thus Philo used this in his commentaries on the Jewish Scriptures. However, this put Origen in strong distinction to the attitudes of the more literalist Tertullian on the matter!] As a catechetical teacher (preparing those who were about to enter the church), Origen was well aware of and loyal to the doctrines of Christian Orthodoxy--though (in keeping with the intellectual spirit of Greek learning) he felt that the scholar had the call to pass imaginatively beyond these foundational ideas--not so as to contradict them, but to offer supplementary understanding). His imaginatively speculative mind would get him in trouble with Orthodoxy in a later age--for many of his ideas were later condemned as heretical: thus for instance, the old Socratic theory that the soul exists independently of the body and enters it at birth; or the universalist notion that in the end all would be saved; or some very imaginative views on the Trinity! He saw Jesus' redemptive death on the cross as an idea of salvation suitable for the common lot of people. But for higher thinkers, he believed that Jesus' redemptive purpose was lodged in the idea of the believer being raised to the level of God through the contemplation of God (an idea that would reappear in medieval mysticism). The higher soul understands the importance of moving from the imperfect world of becoming (the world of flux and change) to the perfect world of pure being (eternal, unchanging, impassible--like God). This contemplative path is the path of higher minds. He was a trinitarian--in opposition to the monarchianists. Father, Son and Holy Spirit are three hypostases (translated to the Latin as "persons"). The Son however was begotten of the Father not as a single historical event--but as an on-going event since the beginning of eternity. But in line with classic Greek philosophy, he believed that creation was eternal--not made. Beings fall from grace and thus from an eternal relationship with God and thus come in need of redemption. The purpose of God's redemptive work in Christ was thus to restore creation to its original state of being in eternal relation with God. Origen's major works or writings: First Principles Against Celsus Prayer Exhortation to Martyrdom Commentary on the Gospel of John Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage (martyred in 258) Cyprian was born of an upper-class pagan family and destined for a life in high public office--until he converted to Christianity around 245 because of the high moral qualities of the faith. Only a few short years later he was made bishop of Carthage! He then had to lead the Carthaginian church during the Decian persecutions of 249-251--which was aimed first at the death of all Christian bishops. Cyprian, warned in advance, was able to hide--though this gave jealous clergy, who had resented his rapid rise, a chance to criticize him. Then the persecution was directed against all Christians, forcing them, under penalty of death, to sacrifice to the pagan gods--including importantly the emperor-god. A large numbers of Christians apostatized (gave up their Christian faith) under this unexpected pressure. Then when just as suddenly the persecutions ended--the problem emerged of readmitting apostatized Christians back into the fold: who should have the power to readmit them and under what terms? The Church fell into deep internal dissent over the matter. Some of the more rigoristic withdrew in anger at the ease by which Christians were being forgiven for their apostacy--and withdrew to set up separate churches. The unity of the church was threatened. Cyprian pressed for forgiveness and unity--and claimed that only the bishops, not the most rigoristic individuals ("confessors"), had the right to restore the apostates. His views influenced greatly the idea of a church ruled by ordained bishops and not by charismatic individuals. But he also believed that bishops had autonomous authority in their own bishoprics and no bishops stood above any others (such as the Bishop of Rome!) His view on this matter prevailed only temporarily. Cyprian's major works or writings: The Lapsed That Idols Are Not Gods To Donatus The Unity of the Church Anthony of Egypt (251-356) A religious hermit in the Egyptian desert (along the lower Nile) who was considered the first organizer and inspirer of monastic Christian life.  As a young man of about 20 he took up the practice of asceticism (self-denial).  At about the age of 35 he took to the desert to live in total isolation--remaining in that condition for nearly 20 years.  During these years he was engaged in an on-going struggle with visions of Satan--and in the perfecting of his spiritual life. The stories of his struggles began to inspire the larger Christian world (including Athanasius who was to write a biography: Life of Anthony).  Indeed, over the years a large number of other Christian ascetics had gathered around him to imitate his discipline, and in 305 Anthony ended his isolation in order to instruct others in the monastic life.  Eventually he organized a monastery, Dayr Mari Antonios, on a mountain near the Nile--which stands to this day.

EARLY DISSENTERS FROM THE "CATHOLIC" VIEW

The "Judaizers" or "Legalists" (first century) Their view was that all Christians must submit to the full requirements of the Law of Moses--in particular the requirement of male circumcision and the keeping of all the details of the Jewish religious code--as integral parts of the covenant of salvation in Jesus Christ. This was strongly resisted by Paul [once a Jewish legalist (Pharisee) himself] who claimed that salvation came by God's grace alone (established for us through the faithfulness of Jesus--and received in turn by us through our faith)--and was not earned by anyone through the keeping of any part of the Jewish law (or any other law). Gnostics (late first century and thereafter) The Gnostics departed in a major way from the "apostolic" teachings of Jesus's original followers.  Their thinking absorbed strong mystical influences from the pagan culture around them.  Gnosticism grew up within the church during the late first century, achieved a strong influence within the church during the mid-second century, and lingered on quite some time thereafter within the fringes of the churches after major efforts were made to suppress it. The Gnostics got their name, meaning "the ones who know" because they claimed to possess special revelation knowledge that the rest of the Christian community was not privileged to have. According to this special knowledge, the cosmos was a supposedly a dark, fallen second order of life created by a mere secondary-order god: Yahweh.  True God (not Yahweh) could not have made such a flawed creation. Further they believed that there were two orders of Christians: the spiritual and the worldly.  The spiritual or the saved (or "elect") were privileged spiritual beings who were raised above this flawed world and accorded special entrance into the secret world of original light, where God was found in truth.  Moreover, such gnostic "spirituals" were freed from the moral requirements of this darkened world of flesh (and many acted accordingly). Valentius (ca. 150) was a key leader of gnostic thought. Docetists Docetism was a variant or component of the Gnostic heresy--of a rather rigorous variety.  According to world-despising gnostics, Jesus could not have been truly human--for that which is of God could never have taken the flawed form of a creature of this world.  To have actually been flesh would have made him captive to evil.  Thus Jesus only appeared to have been such a worldly creature. Manicheanists Manicheanism was another variant of rigoristic Gnosticism.  Manicheanism was a borrowing from the dualistic Light-Darkness Persian philosophy--also popular in Roman world.  The Manicheanists professed the idea of a dualistic divinity: 1) the creator/god of this physical world is Evil; 2) the god of Good is master over the spiritual world.  The two are in struggle with each other for supremacy over life. Marcionists (middle of 100s) This was another version of Gnosticism--but very rigorous in its self-denying tendencies. The Marcionists were rigorously self denying of the "flesh"--even of sex. Like Gnosticism, Marcionism tended to be strongly anti-Jewish and felt that the Christian Scriptural canon should be purged of all "Jewish" influences.  To the Marcionists, Yahweh of the Old Testament and the New Testament God were not the same thing. Marcionists were also docetic and dualistic in the manner of the Gnostics and Manicheanists. Montanists (late 100s) Montanism started up in Asian Minor, ca. 170--spreading rapidly throughout the empire.  It too was Gnostic in character. This movement began as a "New Prophecy": as part of the continuing role of the Paraclete (Holy Spirit) in further developing the life of the church.  It was guided heavily by the ecstatic utterings of Montanus (from whom it got its name), and the female "prophets" Priscilla and Maximilla. It was also apocalyptic: viewing Phrygia (a Roman province in Asia Minor) as being the New Jerusalem of the End Times--which we were soon approaching It too held a very rigoristic view of the Christian life:  fasting, celibacy, martyrdom--and looked down on those Christians who were less rigoristic than they. Arius - Arians (ca. 200) Arianism from Arius, one of the major promoters of unitarian thinking within the church, is also known as Monarchism or "one ruler," The major stress of Arius was the sole rule of God.  His teachings tended to downplay the orthodox or catholic Christian understanding of Jesus as being pure God, replacing it with an understanding of Jesus as one who achieved Godliness.  Thus Arianism saw Jesus' divinity as derivative of God--not coexistent and co-eternal with God.  It was adoptionist, in the sense that it felt that Jesus was rewarded at death with divinity for his faithfulness.  Jesus thus earned his divine status. It thus played into the hands of the rigorists who felt that the way to God was through immense human effort and self-discipline--as per Jesus' example. This kind of thinking was to be a major problem for Apostolic or Orthodox or "Catholic" (Universal) Christianity which felt that Arianism greatly reduced the vital importance of Jesus in the Divine scheme of things.  Orthodox Christianity taught that the only way to God, the only "work" acceptable to God to remove the stain of sin from human life, the only path by which we were restored to oneness in our fellowship with God (Atonement), was through the divine work of God through Jesus Christ on the cross.  Anything else, any human work we put forward on our own behalf before God, merely served to diminish the importance of the saving act of God through Jesus Christ on the cross. Thus Arianism played down the role of God's grace in saving sinners.  It definitely stood in opposition to the doctrine--strongly put forward by the apostle Paul--of divine election or "predestination," whereby those who were destined to salvation were the ones God alone, out of the mystery of his divine will, chose for this purpose.  According to Paul, we all are such sinners that no one could ever presume to work his/her way to heaven.  Only the merit of the cross earned by the faithful Jesus could compensate or atone for our sins.  Only those who cling to Jesus' merit, not their own, could ever achieve heaven.  Only those who come to such faith in Jesus (again, by a miracle of God's grace), who truly make him the Lord of their lives, will ever enter the kingdom of God.  Only those whose eyes are opened by the Spirit of God to this understanding, who surrender their own natural instincts for self-justification, will ever see eternal life.  Only those mysteriously touched by the power of God so as to be able to overcome their sinful, self-serving instincts, will be saved.   According to Paul and the early Orthodox or Catholic church, there is no way that we can work our way into heaven by our own efforts. Nonetheless, "works-righteousness," whereby persons earned their way to salvation through the rigors of their own religious life, remained very popular among the people--and persisted through the centuries (even down to today) as a major heresy ever-ready in some new form (Pelagianism [early 400s], Armenianism [early 1600s]) to invade orthodox or catholic theology. Modalists The Modalists are those who took up the cause or viewpoint of Sabellius, one of the major exponents of modalist thinking (Modalism is also known as Sabellianism).  Modalism puts forward the view that God is One--but appearing in three different "modes" in three different phases of revelation: Father (Creator), Son (Redeemer) Spirit (Sustainer) who come into history during different times (thus, for instance, the Son is not co-eternal with the Father and is subordinate to him). Pelagianists (early 400s) Pelagius was a popular Christian teacher in Rome (around 400), who stressed moral rigorousness as a necessary part of salvation. When the Visigoths invaded Rome in 410, Pelagius and his followers fled to Africa--though Pelagius himself soon moved on to Palestine; but many followers remained in Africa troubling the Christian waters there. Pelagius--or his disciple Coelestius, anyway--denied the doctrine of original sin and the necessity of Christ's atoning sacrifice for salvation. Salvation, they said, occurred through following the example of Jesus in living by the Law. Augustine and other church fathers of the day resisted this heresy stiffly--for pelagianism tended to make salvation a matter of human works--not divine grace, not the gift of the atoning death of Christ on the cross.

THE DEVELOPERS OF ORTHODOX THEOLOGY (300 to 450)

Eusebius of Caesarea (ca. 260-340) Eusebius was the historian of these times. He served as the court historian for Constantine -- who told him the story of his conversion at Milvian Bridge Eusebius' major works or writings: The Martyrs of Palestine Life of Constantine Ecclesiastical History Athanasius (ca. 296-373) Athanasius was deacon of the church at Alexandria, eventually becoming Bishop in 328. He managed to find himself smack in the middle of the growing Catholic-Arian (or Trinitarian-Unitarian) controversy that pulled at the empire. He was exiled 5 times--because of the fluidity of the court politics and the changing fortunes of this Catholic and Arian Christianity with the Roman Emperors. He took up the cause of his Bishop Alexander against Arius at the Council of Nicea (325) getting the Council to find in favor of his well-argued position against the Arian position. On behalf of the Trinitarian cause he wrote profusely: The Incarnation of the Word: ("Christ was made man that we might be made divine." To say that Jesus was not God--as did Arius--but created by God--then Jesus could not be our savior because only God can restore man to union with God. Athanasius' major works or writings: On the Incarnation Against the Heathen/Greeks Orations against the Arians Life of Anthony (This publication did much to publicize and popularize the monastic life) Defence before Constantius Basil of Caesarea (329-379) Basil was the leading "Cappadocian Father."  He was early in his life a monastic. Basil of Caesarea's major works or sermons: The Holy Spirit Nine Homilies of the Hexaemeron Letters of St. Basil Gregory of Nazianzus (ca. 330-390) Another "Cappadocian Father." Gregory of Nazianzus' major works or writings: Theological Orations Select Letters) Gregory of Nyssa (ca. 335-394) The third of the "Cappadocian Fathers" and the younger brother of Basil. Gregory of Nyssa's major works or writings: That There Are Not Three Gods Letters Ambrose, Bishop of Milan (339-397) An outstanding preacher whose sermons touched deeply the spirit of a young Augustine as he struggled to define his spiritual life. Ambrose's major works or sermons: On the Christian Faith On the Mysteries On the Holy Spirit Concerning Virgins Jerome [Hieronymous] (ca. 340-420) At about the same time as all this terrible turmoil started to hit the Empire, hermit purists began to escape to the Egyptian and Syrian deserts--to cultivate a personal spiritual relationship with God. They attempted to purify or mortify the flesh in order to surrender themselves totally to God. At first the bishops were hostile to this movement. But Jerome dignified this life by his own dedication as a hermit. He also spent his time translating the bible into common Latin:  the Vulgate Bible.  Augustine highly approved of his work. John Chrysostom (ca. 350-407) John was a Presbyter at Antioch and later bishop of Constantinople. He preached the lectio continua [preaching through whole sections of the Bible, chapter by chapter,  verse by verse] - later published as commentaries on Scripture. John Chrysostom's major works or writings: Homilies: Gospel of Matthew Homilies: Gospel of John/Hebrews Homilies: Acts/Romans Homilies: Gal./Eph./Philp./Col./Thes./Tim./Titus/Philm. Augustine (354-430) Without a doubt, Augustine was the most influential writer and thinker of the Roman-Christian era. His work helped enormously to undergird the church with on-going moral authority at a time when the secular arm of the Roman government was losing strength.  He also helped a wearied Roman-Christian culture accept the loss of its secular strength by focusing it on transcendent "spiritual" realities.  Augustinian spirituality not only helped keep alive a certain sense of human virtue during the "dark ages" but it also later served to help the church reform itself in the 16th century. For more information on Augustine Augustine's major works or writings: Against Pelagius Free Choice of the Will Confessions (397) Against the Manichees/Against the Donatists On Christian Doctrine Enchiridion (Faith, Hope and Love) The Trinity (399-419) City of God (413-427) The Predestination of the Saints The Gift of Perseverance On the Teacher

THE EARLY ECUMENICAL COUNCILS

The Council of Nicea (325) The first Ecumenical Council.  Establishment of the Trinitarian formula for God. Documents from the Council of Nicea: The First Council of Nicea The Council of Constantinople (381) The Second Ecumenical Council. Documents from the Council of Constantinople: The First Council of Constantinople The Council of Ephesus (431) The Third Ecumenical Council.  Condemned Nestorius and his teaching (Nestorianism) that Christ had two separable natures, human and divine. Declared Mary to be theotokos (lit. God-bearer, i.e. Mother of God) in order to strengthen the claim that Christ was fully divine against those who called her merely Christotokos (Christ-bearer). The Council of Chalcedon (451) The Fourth Ecumenical Council.  Condemnation of the Monophysite (Egyptian) position Documents from the Council of Chalcedon: The Council of Chalcedon

EARLY CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES

Patrick (389-461) Patrick was a Briton who as a youth was captured and brought to Ireland as a slave (ca. 405), escaped after about 6 years of forced service to a local Irish warlord named Miliucc, returned to his family in Britain, eventually studied for the priesthood in Gaul (France), was ordained priest and bishop (ca. 430)--and then returned to Ireland (ca., 432), established himself as bishop at Ard Macha (Armagh), and proceeded from there to convert Ireland to Christianity, Catholic Christianity. For more information on Patrick Patrick's major works or writings: Confessions Letter to Coroticus

JUDAISM AND EARLY CHRISTIANITY: A FULL HISTORY

The Israelites / Jews (Spiritual Pilgrim) The Formation of Christendom (Spiritual Pilgrim)

Go on to the next section:  The Middle Ages

  Miles H. Hodges