PEOPLE OF IDEAS

THE 19th CENTURY
(1800s)

Robert Malthus (1766-1834) English economist and demographer. Took the pessimistic view that all industrial growth would be more than offset by an even faster rate of growth in the number of the poor. Since the publication in 1798 of the book An Essay on the Principle of Population by the English clergyman Robert Malthus, there was considerable discussion in England about the problems created by a rapidly expanding human population on the earth ... the issues of hunger, disease and war that this would produce. As an Anglican clergyman, Malthus wrested with the problem of why God would allow suffering to occur within his creation.  Malthus finally concluded that God wanted man to rise to the challenge of life, to succeed in the face of life’s difficulties through the discipline of hard work.  Those who fell short of the challenge were simply some kind of disappointment to the great Creator.  Those who ‘failed’ merely reaped that which they had sown. Malthus' major works or writings: Essay on Population (1797) David Ricardo (1772-1823) Ricardo's major works or writings: Principles of Political Economy (1817) James Mill (1773-1836) Mill's major works or writings: Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind (1829) Essay on Government Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Comte reacted to the sometimes wild speculation of French rationalists, who during the previous century had built their philosophical theories on "reasonable" proposition – rather than on the observation of actual phenomenon.  In short, he introduced British empiricism to French or continental philosophy, terming his approach "positivism." He was particularly interested in seeing social philosophy built on very careful observation of actual social behavior rather than mere rationalist speculation (such as Rousseau's social theories a half-century earlier).  Thus he laid the groundwork for the field of modern sociology with its demand for "factual" foundations for all assertions of truth. But interestingly, in laying out his arguments, he himself employed a very rationalistic or speculative theoretical foundation for his assertions. In his major six-volume work, Course of Positive Philosophy, he posits an evolutionary development of human knowledge over the aeons – a developmental picture that was entirely speculative--and related more to a simplistic reading of the events surrounding Revolutionary France over the course of the past century. He stated that human knowledge began in its primitive stages as theology, or laying all events at the feet of divine forces or God (related to the Divine rights claims of monarchical authority).  The next stage, the rationalist or philosophical stage was once characterized by broad abstract principles as the foundation of truth or knowledge (he had in mind the rhetoric of Revolutionary France). But the evolved state of knowledge (a pragmatic, bureaucratic post-Revolutionary France) would be built on the works of scientific scholars who would direct society through their knowledge of science. None of this was itself based on the empirical methods he called for in his study--but was itself a continuation of the French rationalist approach to knowledge. Nonetheless his ideas would catch the imagination of 19th century Europe and help move it toward the notion that all truth is built on fact and fact alone. Comte's major works or writings: Systeme de politique positive (1823) and  (1851-1854) Cours de philosophie positive (Course of Positive Philosophy) (1830-1842) A General View of Positivism (Chapter I: Its Intellectual Character) (1856) John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) J.S. Mill was an amazing child prodigy, reading classic Greek literature (from Aesop to Plato) by age 8, then a full array of Latin and Greek works by age 10 ... plus history, math, physics and astronomy.  In all of this, he was carefully "home schooled" – pruned and protected in his infancy and youth by his father, James Mill – in order that the son would be "associated" only with the sharpest minds (his father's and that of the family friend Jeremy Bentham) ... and not with lower social orders of his own age ... a key part of the educational philosophy of the British "Positivist" movement.  His father's goal was to grow his son into "a bright light of Utilitarian philosophy that might light the world."  In part the father succeeded, though at a deeply heavy emotional and spiritual cost to the son. Utilitarianism, Positivism, or Liberalism – all amounted to pretty much the same thing: holding the common view that a person is born with no a priori thoughts or abilities ... but as a thinking creature is simply the result of careful development by guiding hands – hopefully ones that care deeply for the happiness of those in their care.  It was all very personal.  Liberals (both Americans and British, from Jefferson to the Mills) viewed with great distrust the intervention of public authorities in this process.  In short, "the best government is the one that governs the least!"  This would be a central tenent of Mill's Utilitarian or Liberal philosophy. The understanding was that simply a person becomes what the surrounding world brings to that person ... nothing more, nothing less.  Therefore that surrounding world – physical as well as social – must be carefully shaped, engineered, protected.  But this must be carried out on a personal or individual basis ... not on a public or Socialistic basis. Personal freedom was essential to proper development. However ... he was closely connected with the British administration of India – being a high-ranking official from 1823 (at age 17!) all the way to the end of the East India Company in 1858.  In this matter, he would, take a broader view of the responsibilities that fell to more enlightened social hands in face of a "barbarian" society.  Something akin to social action or "benevolent despotism" would be required under such circumstances ... but must be carefully conducted so as to benefit and not just merely subdue such a barbarian society.. And as far as an issue under much discussion at the time, Mill felt that religion was the highly laudable ability of human thought to rise above the merely physical or natural condition of life to contemplate and be moved by ideals of excellence.  But whether there was a supreme Deity or consciousness to which human thought draws itself – or which energizes the forces of life as Creator and Sustainer – was a most uncertain proposition for Mill. In any case, the very simplicity and the very attractiveness of Utilitarian or Positivist "Liberalism" would catch on widely in the fast-changing political setting of 19th century Britain.  And Mill, with his many publications, would be one to give great clarity and appeal to this idea ... also helping to make the British Liberal Party a growing force in British politics. J.S. Mill's major works or writings: System of Logic (1843) Principles of Political Economy (1848) On Liberty (1859) Representative Government (1861) Utilitarianism (1863) (Wiretap) Three Essays on Religion (1874) C.S. Peirce (1839-1914) coiner of the term "pragmatist" William James (1842-1910) American pragmatist James' major works or writings: Radical Empiricism The Will To Believe (1897)

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) Goethe was an individual of wide tastes and talents, being a poet, dramatist and scientist all in one.  He was early influenced by Herder, who inspired in him a deep appreciation of German folk culture and consequently a spirit of German nationalism. But Goethe was also a profound individualist, intrigued by the power and depth of personal experience and emotion.  In his first play, Götz von Berlichingen (1773), Goethe explored the depths of individual human sentiments--and laid the foundation for the Sturm und Drang movement – which advocated personal freedom in the face of oppressive, medieval attitudes in Germany concerning the role of the individual in society.  This movement would later blossom into German Romanticism. In the 1780s Goethe went to Rome to study classic art, architecture and literature and for a while came under the more formalistic style of the neo-classicist movement.  But on his return to Germany he found little appreciation for his new views. He then turned to science for a while.  But his longer-standing romantic inclinations reasserted themselves and his independent individualist style returned to the fore.  This culminated in his all-time great work, Faust (actually written and rewritten in two parts over a long period of time reaching perhaps from 1772 to 1829) ... which was an epic tale of the search of the individual for that which is of a lasting or transcending value in the face of freedom's great opportunities – and uncertainties.    His Faust would be the best read work of German literature (roughly equivalent to the place Shakespeare has long enjoyed in English literature) ... inspiring young Germans for generations to quest for the German ideal, the romantic spirit or soul that made Germany unique among the nations. Goethe's major works or writings: Götz von Berlichingen (1773) The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774) Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship (1796) Faust (1808) Wilhelm Meister's Travels (1821) Friedrich von Schiller (1759-1805) Schiller was a German dramatist and poet who contributed heavily to the Sturm und Drang movement.  His own arrest in 1782 by the Duke of Württemberg for leaving Württemberg without ducal permission to attend the performance of his first play, Robbers, in another German state no doubt played an important role in shaping his views on this matter.  His close friendship with Goethe was also an important source of inspiration for his politically charged dramatic works, which dignified the instincts of the sensitive, heroic individual over the heavy-handedness of traditional authority and social tradition. Schiller's major works or writings: The Robbers (1781) Don Carlos(1787) Wallenstein (1799) The Maid of Orleans (1801) William Tell (1804) Vicomte François René de Chateaubriande (1768-1848) Chateaubriande's major works or writings: The Genius of Christianity (1802) Memoirs from Beyond the Tomb (1849-1850) Aleksandr Pushkin (1799-1837) Considered the father of modern Russian literature – for it was he who dared to write in Russian, the language of the commoner, rather than, say in French, which was considered the language of the upper classes or aristocracy.  His thinking was considered very revolutionary and he was dismissed from governmental service and banished to his family's rural estate (he was rehabilitated two years later). Pushkin's major works or writings: Eugene Onegin (1823) Boris Godunov (1825) Eugene Onegin (1823-1831) Poltava (1828) The Bronze Horseman (1833) The Captain's Daughter (1836) Feodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821-1881) Dostoevsky's major works or writings: Notes from Underground (1864) Crime and Punishment (1866) The Brothers Karamazov (1879-1880) Count Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) Russian Christian Tolstoy's major works or writings: War and Peace (1869) Anna Karenina The Death of Ivan Ilych (1886) William Blake (1757-1827) Blake's major works or writings: The William Blake Archive (poetry and paintings) The William Blake Page (poetry and paintings) Collected Works Selected Poems William Wordsworth (1770-1850) As with many English intellectuals, Wordsworth as a young man was enthusiastic about the French Revolution (1789) at least in its early stages. In 1791 he journeyed to France to witness this grand event.  But as time passed, and as the Revolution turned bloodier and more vindictive and aggressive, he became distrustful of the Revolution. As a Romantic, he became more enamored with the pathos of individual human life, especially the nobility of the deeper human emotions--and less sure about the utility of the rationally ordered society. Wordsworth's major works or writings: Lyrical Ballads (1798)      Written in cooperation with Coleridge--and considered the beginning of the      Romanticist movement in England. The Excursion (1814) The White Doe of Rylstone (1815) Ecclesiastical Sonnets (1822) The Prelude (1850)      An autobiography started a half-century earlier--though not published as a      completed work until after his death Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) Coleridge's major works or writings:  Biographia Literaria (1817) Selected Poetry and Prose of Samuel Taylor Coleridge George Gordon Noel, Lord Byron (1788-1824) A profoundly moody English Romantic writer, he was considered by many of his English contemporaries to be almost insane.  He finally left England in 1816 to live on the European continent as an English expatriate (he never returned).  He wrote of individuals who suffered deeply from the cruelties of society, heroizing the individual who dared to stand on his own. Byron's major works or writings: Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812) The Prisoner of Chillon(1816) Don Juan (1821)  Selected Poetry and Prose of George Gordon, Lord Byron Selected Poems of Lord Byron Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822) A Romantic "non-conformist" with a disdain for the conventional social mores of his times (he was expelled from Oxford University for publishing a work, "The Necessity of Atheism"). A very productive poet who authored numerous odes from the time he was 26 until just before his 30th birthday when he drowned in sailing accident during a storm. Shelley's major works or writings: "The Necessity Of Atheism" (1811/1813) Prometheus Unbound (1820) In Defence of Poetry (1822) Complete Poetical Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley Selected Writings Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881) Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-1861) E.B. Browning's major works or writings: An Essay on Mind (1826) Prometheus Bound (1833) The Seraphim and Other Poems (1838) The Cry of the Children (1842) Sonnets from the Portuguese (1845-1850) Aurora Leigh (1857) Poems Before Congress (1860) Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809-1892) English Poet Laureate, 1850-1892. Tennyson's major works or writings: Poems, by Two Brothers (1827) Poems, Chiefly Lyrical (1830) Poems (1833) Poems (2 vols 1842) The Princess, a Medley (1847) In Memoriam (1850) Maud (1855) The Idylls of the King (a continually expanding collection: 1859-1885) Tithonus (1860) Enoch Arden (1864) Lucretius (1868) Queen Mary (1875) Harold (1876) The Falcon (1879) Ballads and Other Poems (1880) The Cup (1881) The Promise of May (1882) Becket (1884) Tiresias, and Other Poems (1885) Locksley Hall, sixty years after (1886) Demeter, and other poems (1889) The Death of Înone, and other Poems (1892) The Foresters (1892) Robert Browning (1812-1889) Robert Browning's major works or writings: Paracelsus (1835) Sordello (1840) Dramatic Lyrics (1842) Dramatic Romances and Lyrics (1845) A Soul's Tragedy (1846) Christmas Eve and Easter Day (1850) Men and Women (2 vol. collection of poems, 1855) Dramatis Personae (1864) The Ring and the Book (1868) Dramatic Idyls Asolando (1889) Charles Dickens (1812-1870) English novelist. Dickens' major works or writings: Sketches by Boz (1836) The Pickwick Papers (1837) Oliver Twist (1837-1839) Nicholas Nickleby (1838-1839) The Old Curiosity Shop (1840-1841) Barnaby Rudge (1841) American Notes (1842) Martin Chuzzlewit (1843-1844) A Christmas Carol (1844) The Chimes (1844) The Cricket and the Hearth (1845) Pictures From Italy (1846) Dombey and Son (1847-1848) Battle of Life (1848) The Haunted Man (1848) David Copperfield (1849-1850) Bleak House (1852-1853) Hard Times (1854) Little Dorrit (1855-1857) The Frozen Deep (with Wilkie Collins, 1856) A Tale of Two Cities (1859) Great Expectations (1860-1861) Our Mutual Friend (1864-1865) The Mystery of Edwin Drood (1869-1870) John Ruskin (1819-1900) An English philosopher in search of an uncerstanding and definition of beauty (aesthetics). Ruskin's major works or writings: The Seven Lamps of Architecture Walt Whitman (1819-1892) Whitman's major works or writings: Leaves of Grass

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) Emerson is best known as leader of the "transcendentalist" movement in America. He was born into a prominent Boston family, one characterized by generations of service to the church (his father, William, was the minister of the venerable First Church of Boston).  He attended Harvard College and Divinity School and eventually became pastor of the 2nd church of Boston--where he soon achieved recognition as an excellent preacher. But like his father before him, he found himself being drawn into new realms of thought that challenged his orthodox Christian beliefs.  The writings of the English romantics, Carlyle and Coleridge, the philosophy of Swedenborg, the new biblical text-criticism coming out of Germany, plus his own cool intellectual rather than warm pastoral nature began to distance him emotionally from his work. Soon after his wife died in 1831, he stepped down from the ministry (1832)--to freely pursue the question of  the nature and purpose of human life--and its relation to the larger natural world around man.  He traveled to Europe, visiting Coleridge, Wordsworth and Carlyle in the process.  When he returned to the States in 1833, he began work on his small, but revolutionary book, Nature--which he published anonymously three years later.  In this book he outlined the basic ideas that underpinned his Transcendalist philosophy. Basically he took the ancient Idealist position of Plato--in strict opposition to the mechanistic-materialist philosophy of Newton and Locke which he saw as undergirding modern life (including the Unitarian theology that was so prevalent around him).  He was in part a mystic (in keeping somewhat with the older Puritan tradition!)--seeking direct knowledge of God through divine revelation, rather than through systematic theology or rational philosophy. He felt that Newton had imprisoned the human spirit within his model of life as a machine made up of bits of matter in motion in accordance to a fixed system of natural laws.  Further, he felt that Locke had only added to this error by depicting the human mind as a similar machine, linked only to the outside world through the the bombardment of external sensations upon the receptors of the mind.  This mechanistic-materialistic philosophy was all lacking the force of spirit, a transcending spirit--which was to Emerson the substance that gives rise to all life, human and otherwise.  To Emerson, this transcending spirit unites all life into a single harmony which flows from God--and at the same time is God. The moral implications of Emerson's philosophy were in the vast freedoms this spirit seemed to give man--freedoms to make choices about his own life.  To Emerson man was not a machine, but part of the great flow of the power of God--and capable of fulfilling the most noble visions endowed by God to the active human mind/spirit.  Indeed, the human spirit was potentially so powerful that it had a proper place in the on-going unfolding of all creation.  The human mind was thus not the victim of a supposedly machine-like environment around it--but was instead its natural master, inasmuch as man acted in harmony with that environment. The Unitarians responded with denunciations--especially when he brought his ideas before the Harvard Divinty School in an address to that body in 1838. Emerson had built up such a faith in the natural attraction of the human mind to high-minded ideas that he was a bit taken aback when his ideas failed to persuade--but only stirred animosity.  He learned the hard lesson that reform of human life was not going to take place just in the presenting of ideas.  There was going to have to be concerted action that accompanied these ideas.  Though Emerson himself would not become an activist-reformer, many of his close associates in the Transcendalist movement would--especially those closely involved in the Abolitionist movement (to end slavery in the United States). He spent the rest of his life serving as a lecturer, philosopher and poet--in wide demand on the lecture circuit, even being called to Harvard to present his ideas.  He was definitely a man of the times, philosopher of the young, optimistic American Republic which felt that it had a mandate to show the rest of the world the higher, more humane way to live. For more information on Emerson Emerson's major works or writings: Nature (1836) Essays: First Series (1841)      ["History," "Self-Reliance," "Compensation," "Spiritual Laws," "Love," "Friendship,"      "Prudence," "Heroism," "The Over-Soul," "Circles," "Intellect," and "Art."] "The Transcendentalist" Essays: Second Series (1844)      ["The Poet," "Manners," and "Character."] Poems (1846) Representative Men (1850) [lectures]  The Conduct of  Life (1860) ["Power," "Wealth," "Fate," "Culture"] May Day and Other Pieces (1867) Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) Thoreau's major works or writings: Civil Disobedience (1849) Walden: Life in the Woods (1854)

Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814) Fichte's major works or writings:   Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung (1702) Grundlage der gesammten Wissenschaftslehre (1794 ) Die Bestimmung des Gelehrten (1794) Grundlage des Alaturrechts (The Science of Ethics) (1796) Die Bestimmung des Menschen (1800) Grundzuege des gegenweirtigen Zeitalters (1806) Ueber das Wesen des Gelehrten (1806) Reden an die deutsche Nation (Advice to the German Nation) (1808) Die Wissenschaftslehre in ihrem allgemeinen Umrisse (The Science of Knowledge) (1810) Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) A General Overview While the English were pushing ahead an empirical doctrine of evolution through accidental natural causes, the Germans were developing, through the primary inspiration of Hegel, an "idealist" doctrine of evolution through the will of some great transcendent will (the world Spirit).  Hegel was clearly a Platonist--seeing all history, all human events as "guided" by this powerful spirit. This task of learning or of science was to Hegel (and the Hegelians after him) therefore not just to collect facts, but to discern the particular movement of this guiding hand in the midst of such facts. His Life and Works Hegel was born and educated in Stuttgart in the classics and attended the University of Tübingen in preparation for the ministry.  During the course of his university studies he befriended Schelling--and decided against the ministry.  He found work tutoring, first in Switzerland then in Frankfurt.  In 1801 he returned to his studies, this time at the University of Jena--where he eventually became a lecturer, then department head.  Here he completed his first work, Phenomenology of the Mind--just in time to flee Jena from the approaching French armies (1806). He briefly turned to journalism and then became director of a gymnasium in Nuremberg.  During his Nuremberg years (1808-1816) he compiled his Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences, incorporating his earlier Science of Logic (1812), and Philosophy of Nature and Philosophy of Spirit. In 1816 he became a professor at the University of Heidelberg; moving two years later to become a professor at the University of Berlin, where he remained until his death in 1831.  In Berlin he published his Philosophy of Right (1821).  After his death his lecture notes were compiled into a number of publications:  Philosophy of Fine Art (1835-38), History of Philosophy (1833-36), Philosophy of Religion (1832), and Philosophy of History (1837). Hegel's Great Influence on European Philosophy Hegel was clearly a Platonist – seeing all history, all human events as "guided" by this powerful spirit. This task of learning or of science was to Hegel (and the Hegelians after him) therefore not just to collect facts, but to discern the particular movement of this guiding hand in the midst of such facts. Hegel and Kant.  For a while Hegel was strongly influenced by the philosophy of Kant – especially the notion that the real basis of Christianity was not in the legalistic religious doctrines evolved over the centuries by the Christian church – but in the inherent moral "Reason" contained in the teachings and example of Jesus.  But ultimately it was not the "moral reason" of Jesus that inspired Hegel but instead the idea that, in and through Jesus as revelation of the divine, the Spirit of God had spoken to the human heart of eternal truths.  These were much loftier and idealistic concepts than Kant's moral principles. The quest for union with God.  At the heart of Hegel’s philosophy was this idea of man’s hunger to know – and be embraced by – God (or ‘Absolute Spirit’).  For Hegel Jesus represented the goal for all humans: union with God (bringing a divine embrace or condition of full love) –   a human goal much loftier than simply a rational understanding of the material world around us ... which rationalist philosophers (such as Kant) pursued.   Hegel saw this journey, this quest for full union with God, occurring in all of life in progressive stages, from the simple to the complex.  This pertained not only to a person’s individual life, but to whole peoples or nations ... in fact to everything alive in this universe. For example in his 1806 work, Phenomenology of the Mind, Hegel focused on the evolutionary development of human thought, through the stages of mere consciousness, then self- consciousness, then reason, then spirit and religion, and finally to absolute knowledge.  Here the human mind comes to know itself as pure spirit – in its union with the pure spirit of the Absolute.  This is what Christianity, as presented by Jesus, is ultimately all about. Knowledge of the sense-world (achieved through modern science) around man is only a starting point for Hegel in the development of human consciousness.  Scientific or rational knowledge standing as the final goal of human study was to Hegel a false or deceptive completion of the process of development.  Such knowledge regrettably acts only analytically – separating the objects of knowledge into discreet categories.  It also separates, even isolates, the human Geist (mind or spirit) from the reality around it.  While such reason is materially useful to human life, it is not itself the highest or ultimate attainment of the human spirit.   That comes in a process of unification – not separation – of the human consciousness with the reality around it. Along the way in the process the human mind passes through several stages of development:  from mere consciousness to a maturer self-consciousness, to the realm of reason, but then also to the stage of connection with the larger realm of reality through revealed religion and its formal declarations, to. The dialectical struggle.  Then in 1877, based on his lecture notes, he published a new ground-breaking work, Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Outline.  Undergirding this work was the motif of struggle (Kampf) –  struggle of the human spirit or mind through various trials to reach or fulfill itself in a higher union with God.  But Hegel also explained how God, from his side of things, also reached out to the struggling human spirit ... by becoming himself human (and thus limited) – to struggle alongside man to overcome the finite human condition, to help him attain the final stage of complete self-consciousness - as part of the history of creation. Using the dialectical method (the step by step evolution of a thought or idea through the struggle of contradicting propositions in the quest of a higher level of truth), Hegel outlined how  this occurred.  Through this progressive process, God and man (the Absolute and the Finite) are two juxtaposed players joined in a dialectical process of reaching toward each other in a process of self-realization.  This process moves both sides to ever higher levels of realization.  In this God is as dependent on man as man is dependent on God for their mutual realization. This same dialectical process worked also for whole societies.  In his 1821 Philosophy of Right, Hegel was trying to demonstrate through his dialectical method the path to a just political/social order.  On the one hand  society consisted of laws which were necessary for the good ordering of life.  But man also possessed a free conscience and the obligation to exercise this conscience as part of his dignity.  It was in the struggle to balance the need for a legal order and a realm of responsible personal freedom that the just society emerged.   The dangers were always the emergence of not a synthesis between these two tendencies, but the victory of one tendency over the other:  a legal tyranny or an anarchy of human wilfullness.  For Hegel the closest model for an ideal state was the family and the medieval guild – there being no such just realm known to him at that time within the larger political world.  His hope was that the urge to justice would ultimately produce the birth of such a higher political state. By the time of his publication of the Philosophy of Right his reputation was well established in Germany – if not also in all of Europe.  A seat in his lectures was a prized possession for any student.   Careful notes were taken of his lecture s – which was where his work now was wholly contained. His interest in the wider realm of philosophy, art, religion, science also broadened during this time.  But overall his work remained the same:  to demonstrate that history was a working out of the will of God through an ever-heightening human consciousness.  Man was moving into an era of careful human thought – motivated by a deep devotion to God.  The end product for Hegel was indeed the outworking of the Kingdom of Heaven here on earth ... as the fulfilment of the promise that Jesus had made so long ago Hegel’s legacy.  German scholarship (indeed much of all European scholarship) after Hegel was fairly single-minded in this quest of an all-determining transcendent world Spirit.  Things were studied in order to draw out the hidden pattern of this Spirit – so as to enable man to work in cooperation with such divine destiny.   This was a powerful idea, forming the underpinning of the revolutionary zeal of the young reformers of Germany, the "Young Hegelians," who interpreted Hegel's philosophy as a mandate to work with and for the World Spirit in bringing about a heightened or evolved cultural development. This revolutionary attitude even became part of the Scientific Socialism of Karl Marx.  Marx's philosophy, though its Materialist foundations were diametrically opposed to Hegel's Idealism, was strongly influenced by Hegel's idea of a transcending principle moving through history.   In the hands of Marx, this principle directed the revolutionary course of human life, especially in the stage by stage development of the economic class-base of society. Inspirer of the rising nationalist spirit in Germany.  Hegelianism also touched on group pride, as nations or classes came to see themselves as being under the special anointing of the world Spirit to take the lead to direct history into the next era.  This fed powerfully into German nationalism, with its sense of special German historical destiny.  This also fed powerfully into the working class movement which came to view the workers of the world as the true moral underpinning of the world to come. Hegel's major works or writings: The Phenomenology of Mind (or Spirit) (1807) The Objective Logic (1812-13) The Subjective Logic (1816) Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciencies (1817, republished and expanded many times thereafter)      Science of Logic      Philosophy of Spirit      Philosophy of Nature Philosophy of Right(1821) Philosophy of Religion (1832) History of Philosophy (1833-36) Philosophy of Fine Art (1835-38) Philosophy of History (1837) Friedrich Schelling (1775-1854) Schelling's major works or writings: System of Transcendental Idealism (1800) Heinrich von Treitschke (1834-1896) Von Treitschke was a professor of history and politics in a number of German universities: Leipzig, Freiburg, Kiel, Heidelberg and Berlin.  He was an ardent German nationalist who glorified war as the process by which the spirit of a people works itself forward in unity and strength.  He looked to the German State, headed by the autocratic Prussian King, as the leading instrument for the outworking of the German national will. He was a member of the German Reichstag (the popular Assembly) 1871-1884. von Treitschke's major works or writings: History of Germany in the Nineteenth Century (7 vols) Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911) German neo-Hegelian philosopher Dilthey's major works or writings: Introduction to the Human Sciences Thomas Hill Green (1836-1882) Oxford Idealist Green's major works or writings: Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation Josiah Royce (1855-1916) American Idealist

Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829) Lamarck took the logic of selective breeding of animals and hybridization of plants practiced by "enlightened" European farmers--and surmised that in the long-term this process of passing on a species' particular strengths to new generations would produce evolutionary development within the species--and ultimately the creation of new species themselves. Lamarck's major works or writings: Zoological Philosophy (1809) Charles Lyell (1797-1875) He believed that natural (not divine) forces and processes went into shaping the various features of the earth (mountains, valleys, islands, deserts, etc.).  He studied these features directly, climbing, digging, exploring--to observe such things as the impact of erosion, the action of volcanos.  From these observations he deduced various processes by which mountains were built up by convulsions in the earth's surface, valleys were cut through the land, and plains were fashioned from eroded hills and mountains. He viewed the earth as a living organism, in a constant state of growth and decay, birth and death.  He extended this vision to the inhabitants of the earth--plants and animals--and saw such dynamics (growth and decline, birth and death) typical not just of individuals but of whole species of biological life--of whole families of plants and animals. He also estimated that the earth was possibly millions of years old. Lyell's major works or writings: Principles of Geology (1830-33) The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man (1863) Charles Darwin (1809-1882) There is no question that the greatest impact on 19th century thought came from Charles Darwin.  Darwin was a naturalist, a "fact" gatherer, who not only contributed to our understanding many new details about natural life--but also developed a hypothesis about why nature seemed to take the shape she did.  His facts seemed to point to the evolution of all living species through a process of competition for survival which led, by accidental causes, to "natural selection" or "survival of the fittest."  The impact of his hypothesis on the Western intellect cannot be overestimated--for his theory still underpins most modern thinking about life today! But note: Darwin did not invent the idea of evolution--for it had been a very big element of Western thought since the on-set of the Enlightenment.  The French Revolution for instance was quite certain that it was about not only social justice, but also progressive development--growth of human society and the human intellect. Darwin's major works or writings: The Origin of the Species (1859) The Descent of Man (1871)  The Voyage of the Beagle Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) Darwinism was further buttressed by the writings of other social philosophers of the day, including notably Herbert Spencer ... who had been moving in the direction of Darwin’s thinking even before Darwin published his first work in 1859.  Spencer had been working on both social theory (his 1851 Social Statistics) and personal development theory (his 1855 Principles of Psychology) ... his work heavily influenced not only by Malthus but also by the theories of Lamarck.  Then when Darwin’s work was published in 1859 Spencer came out full force in his support of evolution as the basic doctrine of life ... in every aspect of life on earth.   Soon Spencer would even outdistance Darwin as the most recognized philosopher of the late 1800s.  But the very names ‘Darwin’ and ‘Darwinism’ would still serve as the most powerful symbols able to raise strong debate, pro and con ... not only well into the 20th century but still even today..  Spencer's major works or writings: Social Statics (1850) Principles of Biology (1864) T. H. Huxley (1825-1895) T.H. (Thomas Henry) Huxley was a major developer of the the "agnostic" position with respect to the existence of God, seeing only "natural" processes in the evolution of biological life. Huxley's major works or writings: Man's Place In Nature (1863) Practical Biology (1875) Agnosticism (A Reply to Henry Wace) (1889) Ethics and Evolution (Romanes Lecture) (1893)  Huxley distances himself from the position that human morality must mirror the doctrine of "survival of the fittest," claiming that there is no serious connection between the violence of biological or physical evolution over the aeons and the universality of moral principle.

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) An Augustinian monk/teacher in Austria.  Mendel studied plants, in particular the ordinary pea, in order to detect the ways in which traits of parents are passed on to their offspring through principles of heredity.  In 1865 he presented his findings--only to discover that his biological theories ran counter to the environmental theories of natural selection of the rising group of Darwinists.  It was not until after his death that his theories came to light again--and eventually he became recognized as the founder of the science of genetics. Mendel's major works or writings: Treatises on Plant Hybrids (1865) Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936) Pavlov is famous for his explanation of the "conditioned response," worked out in his experiements (late 1800s) with dogs--but extended in theory also to human behavior.  By associating the ringing of a bell with the presenting of food to a dog, the dog came eventually to salivate not just in the presenting of food but eventually, as a result of "conditioning" even to the sound of the bell in itself--even without food being present.

Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) Saint-Simon's major works or writings: Lettres d'un habitant de Genève à ses contemporains (Letters of an       Inhabitant of Geneva to His Contemporaries) (1803) De la réorganisation de la société européenne (On the Reorganization of       European Society) (1814) L'industrie (Industry) (1816-1818, with Auguste Comte) Nouveau Christianisme (The New Christianity) (1825) Charles François-Marie Fourier (1772-1837) Fourier's major works or writings: Théorie des quatre mouvements et des destinées générales (The Social       Destiny of Man; or, Theory of the Four Movements)  (1808) Traité de l'association agricole domestique (Treatise on Domestic Agricultural       Association) (1822) Le Nouveau Monde industriel (The New Industrial World) (1829-1830) Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1872) German materialist; claimed that religion was merely a projection of the human ego to give hope to human dreams. Feuerbach's major works or writings: The Essence of Christianity (1841) The Philosophy of the Future (1843) The Essence of Religion (1853) Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865) Karl Marx (1818-1883) In typical German fashion, the sociologist Karl Marx picked up on Hegelian Idealism to project a special destiny for the European working classes. But Marx moved more to the middle ground between Hegel and Darwin in projecting how the working classes would come to power.  Not by accident (as per Darwin) nor by some unseen spirit (as per Hegel) but through the necessary logic of the forces of production: the world belonged to those who owned the material forces of production (factories, mines, etc.).  The industrial workers would inevitably wield the power of their vastly greater numbers, to seize the forces of production from the liberal entrepreneurs and institute a new society based on worker values--where all would live voluntarily and communally (owning no property but sharing everything in common) according to a high spirit of brotherly love.  Thus communism or Marxism was born. For more information on Marx Marx's major works or writings: Communist Manifesto (1848) Capital (Volume I: 1867) Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) Engels' major works or writings: Principles of Communism The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy On the History of Early Christianity Anti-Dühring Sidney Webb (1859-1947) Webb's major works or writings: Fabian Essays (1889) ARCHEOLOGY, CULTURAL HISTORY, ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY Jean François Champollion (1790-1832) The French archeologist who translated the Rosetta stone found in Rashid (Rosetta) Egypt (publishing his work in 1822)--and was thus able to provide a system for translating ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics, which since ancient times had remained largely a mystery. On the stone itself was a priestly decree written around 196 BC--in three parallel scripts:  ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic, Egyptian demotic (language of the common Egyptian around 196 BC) and Greek (language of the Ptolemaic dynasty ruling Egypt at that time).  By first detecting royal names he was able to identify a dozen of the hieroglypic symbols--and then slowly begin to work from there in identifying yet other ancient Egyptian names and titles.  Eventually this opened up understanding to even more of the hieroglypics until the full hieroglyphic text could be read. Jakob Christoph Burckhart (1818-1897) A Swiss historian who, in his study of Renaissance Italy, established many of the cannons of modern cultural history. Though he was the son of a Protestant pastor and was sent off to school to become a pastor himself (though receiving much education in the classics along the way) he eventually abandoned these plans--and took up the pantheistic vision of life characteristic of many of the members of the romantic movement. A love for classic art and architecture eventually translated itself into a fascination for the Italian Renaissance, which he studied up close through regular travels to Italy.  Over time he withdrew himself from the political romanticism of his colleagues, becoming less and less confident  that modernism was going to produce a civilization as high as that of the classic and renaissance past.  His life as a teacher at the University of Basle was quiet and unexceptional.  It was, instead, the publication in 1860 of his study of Renaissance Italy that brought his name to public notice.  This study of Renaissance art and culture was unparalleled--and long remained (even well into the 20th century) the standard study on the subject. Burckhart's major works or writings: Die Zeit Konstantins des Grossen (The Age of Constantine the Great) (1853) Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien (The Civilization of the Renaissance in       Italy)  (1860) Griechische Kulturgeschichte (History of Greek Culture) (edited posthumously:     1898-1902) Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890) German archeologist who discovered the locations of  ancient Troy and Mycenae, the main settings for the ancient Homeric epic, the Iliad. As a youth he was fascinated with the Homeric legends and wanted to go to these places to see them for himself.  But he was told that the places were entirely mythical, the product of ancient imaginations. Nonetheless he remained committed to his hope. He proved to be very able in both languages (he mastered over ten languages) and commerce (he worked his way up from errand boy to a master speculator in the movement of industrial and military materials).  Once he had established himself in the world of wealth (he was nearly 50 at that time) he then devoted himself to following his youthful dream. In 1871, using Homer's descriptions of Troy and the area around the ancient city, he decided that the description fit a hill in northwestern Turkey at Hissarlik.  There indeed he uncovered the ancient city of Troy (though the treasures he brought out as "Priam's treasures" actually belonged to a Trojan culture many centuries older than Priam's). He then in 1874 turned his attentions to Greece, to Mycenae, the supposed site of the ancient palace of Agamemnon, the leader of the Greek expeditionary army during the times of the war with Troy.  Here too he uncovered graves and considerable wealth which he supposed to be Agamemnon's (actually it too belonged to an older culture). Overall, he convinced the world to pay closer attention to ancient mythology--to understand that though the accounts themselves seemed entirely fantastic by our standards, nonetheless they were stories that ultimately had their basis in some kind of "historical fact." E. B. Taylor (1832-1917) E.B. (Edward Burnett) Taylor was the coiner of the term "animism" (belief in individual souls or anima in all things, even trees and mountains), which he posited as the first stage of religious evolution. Taylor's major works or writings: Anahuac (1861) Researches into the Early History of Mankind (1865) Primitive Culture (1871) William Robertson Smith (1846-1894) Cultural evolutionist: studied the historical stages of development of the belief system of a people. Smith's major works or writings: Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (1889) Arthur Evans (1850-1941) English excavator of the ancient bronze age culture of Crete--which he named "Minoan" after the ancient myth about King Minos of Crete and his fabulous bull held deep within the labyrinth of his underground palace. At Knossos, the ancient capital of this culture, Evans reconstructed the palace to look closely like the original.  Purists later would criticize his tampering with the archeological evidence with his reconstructions.  But at the time this was quite a novel approach to archeology--and was viewed as quite helpful in bringing the past to life again. Flinders Petrie (1853-1942) English archeologist--considered the "father" of modern Egyptology.  His focus was on gathering information about the past, not its material riches or treasures, or even museum-worthy show items (which had been pretty much the goal of archeology until his time). He began as a surveyor of the pyramids and then progressed to excavator--working to uncover various layers of ancient Egyptian history.  He kept careful records of all his diggings, and considered all finds, no matter how small, to be of important historical significance.  He developed a system of typologies for pottery, arranging them according to the time periods in which they typically appeared across the ancient Egyptian cultural landscape, which could then help to identify the different historical layers as they were exposed in his diggings. Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) Durkheim was the first Chair of Sociology, at the Sorbonne in Paris.  Indeed, he is considered the father of modern sociology. He studied societies not from the point of view of their relative development in comparison with other societies--but from the point of view of their own functionality:  how well they worked as societies.  In particular, he was interested in how each society, through the working of its various social "organs," met the tasks of socializing its own members.  His approach laid out the groundwork for the functionalist school of sociology or anthropology. Durkheim put forth the view that individual humans are strongly influenced by the collective conscience of the society they grow up in.  This collective conscience is more than merely the sum of all the individual members making up society--but has its own existence which provides continuity and cohesiveness for society.  Suicide results when individual members are not able to integrate successfully with that collective conscience--when they suffer "anomie." Durkheim's major works or writings: De la division du travail social (The Division of Labor) (1893) Les règles de la méthode sociologique (Rules of Sociological Method) (1895) Le suicide (Suicide: A Study in Sociology) (1897) Pragmatism and Sociology) (1914) Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse (Elementary Forms of Religious       Life) (1915) Max Weber (1864-1920) Weber's major works or writings: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism THEOSOPHY AND RELIGIOUS SYNCRETISM Helena Petrova Blavatsky (1831-1891) Blavatsky's major works or writings: Isis Unveiled: A Master-Key to the Mysteries of Ancient and Modern Science       and Theology.  (2 vols -1877) The Secret Doctrine: The Synthesis of Science, Religion, and Philosophy.      (2 vols -1888) The Key to Theosophy (1889) ELITISM Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) Schopenhauer's major works or writings: The Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason The World as Will and Idea The World as Will and Representation On the Basis of Morality Essay on the Freedom of the Will Parerga and Paralipomena: Short Philosophical Essays The Pessimist's Handbook: a Collection of Popular Essays Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) Nietzsche's major works or writings: Jenseits von Gut und Böse (Beyond Good and Evil) 1886 Der Antichrist (The Anti-Christ) 1888 Also sprach Zarathustra (Thus Spoke Zarathustra) 1891 EXISTENTIALISM Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) Though Kierkegaard was most definitely a 19th century individual, his work and legacy had to wait well into the twentieth century until it had its great impact within philosophical circles. Kierkegaard's major works or writings: Enten – Eller (Either/Or)  2 Vols - 1843 CHRISTIANITY ON THE DEFENSIVE PART ONE:  CATHOLIC/ANGLICAN CONSERVATISM Joseph de Maistre (1754-1821) ultramontanist de Maistre's major works or writings: Essai sur le principe generateur des constitutions politiques et de autres       institiutions humaines (Essay Concerning the General Principle of Political      Constitutions and of Other Human Institutions) (1803-1817) Lettres sur l'Inquisition (1815) Du pape (On the Pope) (1819) Les Soirees de Saint-Petersbourg (Evening Parties of Saint Petersburg) (1821) Cardinal John Henry Newman (1801-1890) Co-founder (with Richard Hurrell Froude and John Keble) of the Oxford Movement and publisher of Tracts for the Times (1833 and after).  But he came to question the true catholicity of the Church of England (announced in Tract 90) and converted to Catholicism in 1845.  He became cardinal in 1879 Newman's major works or writings: Apologia pro Vita Sua (autobiography) (1864) Tracts for the Times, No. 1 Tracts for the Times, No. 2  Tracts for the Times, No. 3 Tract Ninety (1841) Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine (1845) Edward Bouverie Pusey (1800-1882) Pusey took over leadership of the Anglo-Catholic movement (in 1845 after Newman's defection). He claimed that the movement involved the restoration of true "primitive Christianity." Henry Edward Manning (1808-1892) Converted to Catholicism in 1851; an extreme ultra-montanist; became cardinal in 1875 Pope Pius IX  (pope: 1846-1878) Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti (1792-1878) ... the longest reigning pope.  Pius started out as a very Liberal pope, pardoning and freeing political prisoners in his first year as pope.  But he soon found himself strongly opposed to the Revolutions of 1848, which shook all of Western Europe deeply.  Pressure was on him to join the effort led by Albert of Sardinia to force the Austrians out of northern Italy.  But Pius did not want to get involved in any war.   This decision undercut deeply his popularity at a time of rising nationalism among the Italians. Then calls were made for his to  reform the operation of the Papal States themselves (still quite extensive in size in middle and northeastern Italy) ... something that Liberals had long been demanding.  His hesitancy merely undercut further his national popularity. Finally, he was forced to grant a constitution for a two-chamber parliament to assist him govern the Papal States.  Little by little he was losing the reputation among the Italians. Briefly Rome was taken over by revolutionaries who attempted to convert the Papal States into a Roman Republic ... in the hopes that this would be the first step in the establishment of a fully national Italian state.  But French troops were sent to Italy and quickly shut down the new republic. And thus the Papal States were returned to papal governance.  The Papal States would remain as such until 1860 ... when Victor Emmanuel II of the rising Sardinian kingdom was able to bring under his royal control all of the Papal States - except Rome and Rome’s surrounding Latium region - in his effort to create a unified Kingdom of Italy.  Then in 1870, as a result of a plebiscite held on the issue, a huge majority voted that even that remaining portion would be taken from the papacy and included as part of the Kingdom of Italy.  From that point on, Pius considered himself a “prisoner of the Vatican.” Pius never would recognize the right of the Italian kingdom to exist ... and excommunicated its leaders, including King Victor Emmanuel.  Indeed, the papacy would continue to refuse recognition of the Kingdom of Italy ... all the way up until 1929 - when Mussolini and Pope Pius XI signed the Lateran Treaty, the papacy receiving reparations payments for the loss of its territory to the Italian state ... and the recognition of Vatican City as an independent mini-state within the city of Rome. (a fifth of a mile or half of a kilometer squared in size). Notable during his reign was the declaration of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception (1854), the Syllabus of Errors (1864), and the gathering of the First Vatican Council (1869-1870) in which the doctrine of papal infallibility was declared. Pius IX's major works or writings: Ineffabilis Deus (1854)  [the immaculate conception of the virgin] Syllabus of Errors(1864) Vatican I (1869-1870) Papal infallibility (1870) Pope Leo XIII  (pope 1878-1903) Giaocchino Vincenzo Raffaele Luigi Pecci (1810-1903).  He was born of a noble Italian family (and his older brother Giuseppe also a prominent Catholic official), Jesuit trained, and early on a vital part of the Vatican’s diplomatic service.  As pope, he no longer had the responsibilities of the Papal States to concern him.  But instead he turned his political thoughts to matters of social justice for the common worker and family.  He was opposed to both Socialism and unregulated Capitalism ... supporting both trade union rights and personal property rights.  And he was an excellent diplomat, bringing the Catholic church back into the graces of surrounding European powers.  Italy, however, remaining as a papal problem ... especially as to papal appointment to certain church positions ... as the Austrian emperor and now the Italian monarchy felt that this was its right to do so.     Leo also continued to follow the theological direction set out by his predecessor, Pius IX ... affirming Mary as “mediatrix” in the relationship between the believer and Jesus.  He also stressed the importance (by way of eleven encyclicals he issued!) of the Rosary ... a prayer employing rosary beads to help keep correct count of the ten elements of the prayer ... or ten “Hail Marys.”  And he too stressed the importance to the Church of the Thomast legacy.     He also stressed the importance of reviving the theology of Thomas Aquinas ... to the point of making it the official theological foundation of the Catholic Church. Leo XIII's major works or writings: Encyclical (1891)  [Mary as the mediator between the Christian and Christ] PART TWO:  PROTESTANT LIBERALISM AND BIBLICAL CRITICISM Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834) In his early years he stressed the importance of faith as being the inner work of the spirit of Christ--a spirit which when formalized into the fixed dimensions of scripture was crippled.  However, his Leben Jesu (published posthumously in 1864) attempted to distill the essential or "historical" Jesus from the Scriptural record--resulting in itself a formalized (Liberal) picture of Jesus. Schleiermacher's major works or writings: Reden über die Religion (Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers) 1799 The Christian Faith (1821-22) Leben Jesu (1864) Ferdinand Christian Bauer (1792-1860) German Idealist.  Used the Hegelian dialectic to describe the development of 1st century theology and writings (the NT):  1) the Jewish Christian "thesis" confronts 2) a Gentile or pagan Christian "antithesis" to 3) produce a second-generation Catholic Christian "synthesis."  He concluded (wrongly) that this permitted him to date NT writings according to where they fit into this "development." Bauer's major works or writings: Paulus der Apostel Jesu Christi (1845) David Friedrich Strauss (1808-1874) Strauss took Schleiermacher's quest for the historical Jesus forward--employing rationalistic criteria for distilling such a Jesus from the agendas of the first- century Church; the result was a largely secular-liberal image of Jesus as the wise teacher Strauss' major works or writings: Leben Jesu (1835-1836) Albrecht B. Ritschl (1822-1889) Ritschl's major works or writings: The Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation (3 vols.: 1870-1874) History of Pietism (3 vols.: 1880-1886) [a disapproving account of pietism] Ernst Renan (1823-92) Renan's major works or writings: La vie de Jesus (1863) Julius Wellhausen Wellhausen's major works or writings: Die Composition des Hexateuchs (1885; from essays: 1876-1877) In this work, he carried forward the work of Jean Astruc (previous century) in clearly laying out the evidence of multiple authorship of the 1st six books of the Jewish Scriptures or Old Testament:  the "documentary hypothesis." Israelitische und Jüdische Geschichte  In this work, he posited the religious development of Israel (in a Hegelian evolution) from primitive Yahwism of the people, through a refinement by the prophets, to a codification by post-exilic priests of a monotheistic system.  Also, the Psalms and wisdom literature he dated from post-exilic times--possibly even the Maccabean period. Adolph von Harnack (1851-1930) von Harnack's major works or writings: Das Wesen des Christentums (1899-1900)  In this work he removed the eschatological aspects of the coming Kingdom--at least from the Last Days with its awful judgment of angels and demons, of principalities and powers--to an already-present spiritual rule of God within the human soul--focusing the kingdom on the present (not future) possibilities offered in this earthly existence. History of Dogma (3 vols.: 1886-1889) What is Christianity? (from lectures: 1899-1900) Charles A. Briggs (1841-1913) A Union Seminary Professor who in 1893 was dismissed from the Presbyterian ministry as a result of a heresy trial relating to his biblical scholarship. Hermann Gunkel (1862-1932) He looked beyond the literary structure of Scripture itself to the contemporary cultural milieu of the times in which they were composed--discovering that though the texts may show a late editing, they reflect cultural practices of much greater antiquity, evidence that the material is much older than merely the last editing. Also, he discovered different literary forms or genres which arose out of different social contexts (Sitz im Leben)--which were formalized over time into very precise literary formulae. Many of these same forms are found in the literature of surrounding cultures--giving us an ability to date their origins more precisely. Gunkel's major works or writings: Schöpfung and Chaos in Urzeit and Endzeit (1895) Genesis übersetzt und erklärt (1901) Wilhelm Bousset Jewish apocalyptic was not a monolithic affair in Christ's times--but was widely variant; Jesus felt that the coming of the Kingdom (which was immanent) was not of the order of the particular horror which John the Baptist preached--because of the very manner in which Jesus delighted in the things of the present age and the possibilities of harmonious life now among the people; reportings of Jesus' words to the contrary were so out of character with him that they more likely reflect the viewpoint of the first century church than Christ himself. Bousset's major works or writings: Jesu Predigt in ihrem Gegensatz zum Judentum (1892) Wilhelm Wrede Claimed that Jesus became "Messiah" only in the minds of his disciples after his death. Alfred Loisy (1857-1940) Historical criticism and form criticism seem to imply that Christianity was really only just one of many competing mystery religions of its times: Jesus who died on the cross was only another Adonis or Osiris who, having suffered a violent death, returned to life--to incorporate his mystical devotees into the saving work (immortality or life eternal) of his own resurrection; indeed, the Christ of Christianity is essentially the work of the early church. No understanding of the "historical" Jesus can be drawn from Scripture--as Jesus is lost within the eyewitness of his early followers. PART THREE:  PROTESTANT CONSERVATISM Archibald Alexander (1772-1851) all Scripture is infallible Alexander's major works or writings: Evidences of Christianity (1825 and 1836) A Brief Compend of Bible Truth Charles Hodge (1797-1878) Charles Hodge was born in Philadelphia, the last of five children.  His father died when Charles was only 6 months old and he was raised by his mother (along with another brother who with Charles were the only children to survive infancy).  He attended the College of New Jersey (Princeton), graduating in 1815.  He then went on in 1816 to attend Princeton Theological Seminary, studying under Archibald Alexander.  He graduated in 1819 and was licensed that fall to preach in the Philadelphia Presbytery.  He briefly served as Presbyterian pulpit supply before returning the following year at Alexander's invitation to Princeton to teach biblical languages to seminary students. He was ordained a Presbyterian minister in 1821 and in 1822 he came on board the Princeton Seminary faculty as Professor of Oriental and Biblical Literature.  In 1825 he founded the journal, The Biblical Repertory (later: The Princeton Review) which he would in time use to propound his theology and his views on Scripure.  From 1826 to 1828 he studied in France and Germany--and then returned to Princeton to resume his teaching duties. In 1840 he was moved from the teaching of biblical languages to the teaching of systematic theology--particularly as his long-term mentor Alexander began to step down a bit from his heavy teaching duties.  Then in 1851 when Alexander died, Hodge was moved into place as the full heir-apparent of Alexander.  From this position as chair of systematic theology at Princeton Seminary he waged a strong defense on behalf of the inerrancy of Scripture against the against the "low" view of Scripture of Liberal biblical critics and against the assault on Biblical faith by the Darwinists. In his long tenure at Princeton Seminary, he taught more than 2000 seminary students and was instrumental in shaping the theology of much of 19th century Presbyterian and Reformed America (which was a quite significant portion of the Christian scene in the 1800s) Charles Hodge's major works or writings: Systematic Theology (1872-1873) A. A. Hodge (1823-1886) A.A. Hodge took the position in the debate on Scripture--that though errors may occur in translation, absolute infallibility (inerrancy) exists within the original autograph of Scripture A.A. Hodge's major works or writings: Outlines in Theology (1860, 1879) Benjamin B. Warfield (1851-1921) Warfield's major works or writings: Inspiration and Authority of the Bible Johannes Weiss (1863-1914) Weiss was critical of the sweeping assertions of Biblical criticism.  He emphasized that the very nature of the Kingdom of God as preached by Jesus was such that its transcendental character, born out of the Jewish tradition, made it very difficult to scrutinize by humanist or rationalist logic Weiss' major works or writings: Die Predigt Jesu vom Reiche Gottes (1892) PART FOUR:  EVANGELICALISM While theologians debated the finer points of scripture others of the faith went about their business of being Christian. Christian welfare was still the primary source beyond the family of care for the sick and the poor. To some, the evangelicals, that meant in particular care for the souls of the sick and the poor. Evangelicals believed that people could be reformed or brought out of their poverty of body and mind only through the hearing of the gospel of Jesus Christ.  Efforts to reform people through any other means than the power of the gospel were destined to failure--for the heart had to be converted before the rest of the person could be brought to health, strength and wisdom. That meant that their "call" was to go into the hurting places overseas or in the newly emerging urban order in the West itself and seek out the poor and sick--to bring them into their shelters, to be fed and cared for and--most importantly--be presented with the gospel message of hope. William Wilberforce (1759-1833) Personal religious conversion (1784); dedicated himself to "real Christianity" as opposed to formal Christianity; Member of British Parliament and leader of the "Clapham Sect" of parliamentary reformers; fierce opponent of the slave trade; supported missionary work in India; social reformer of "morals" of the working poor in England. Wilberforce's major works or writings: A Practical View of the Prevailing Religious System of Professed       Christians(1797) William Carey (1761-1834) Founder of the Baptist Missionary Society (1792); Baptist missionary to India (1793-1834); translator of the Bible into various Indian languages; founded schools and agricultural colleges; opposed widow-burning (sati) Carey's major works or writings: An Enquiry into the Obligation of Christians (1792) Charles Grandison Finney (1792-1875) Stressed the freedom and power of the human will to make right or wrong choices--denying the doctrine of original sin (though in essence he supported the doctrine with the idea that we are born with "physical" depravity, that is, a tendency to self-gratification) Finney's major works or writings: Lectures on Systematic Theology (1846-1847) Systematic Theology (1878) Sermons and Articles Charles G. Finney:  An Autobiography David Livingstone (1813-1873) Scottish explorer and missionary to Africa: criss-crossed the continent in a series of exploration ventures 1851-1856; 1858-1863; 1866-1873. Advocated commercial and agricultural development--along with spread of the Gospel--as the Godly obligation of England to Africa. Livingstone's major works or writings: Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa (1857) William and Catherine Booth Co-founders of the Salvation Army out of their tent mission in working class London (1865); severely criticized for unorthodox methods imitating military discipline as a means of rehabilitating down-and-outers, morally and physically. Charles Haddon Spurgeon (1834-1892) Victorian and Calvinist Baptist preacher in London. Some of Spurgeon's major works or writings: All of Grace "Morning and Evening": Daily Readings "Till He Come":  Communion Meditations And Adrresses by C.H. Spurgeon,      1896 Dwight L. Moody (1837-1899) A shoe-salesman turned evangelist, Moody moved from Boston to Chicago to spread the gospel to the poor in Chicago's "Little Hell."  He was instrumental in setting up the YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association) in the United States as a means of offering poor working class youth hope for a way out of their poverty--and then later the YWCA (Young Women's Christian Association).  He also was active in the Sunday School movement. When the Civil War started up in 1861, Moody, an ardent abolitionist (but also something of a pacifist), enlisted as a Union chaplain.  But with Union victory he then returned to Chicago to build support for a large Christian tabernacle that could gather large numbers of Christians together (Moody himself served only as a deacon to this independent church). The Chicago fire of 1871 destroyed his several mission homes and chapels.  But he responded by building the Northside Tabernacle--to help others whose lives had been crippled by the fire. Then Moody joined the musician Ira Shankey to form an evangelical team which took off for England, Scotland and Ireland on an evangelistic crusade, 1873-1875.  The campaign succeeded in drawing out huge crowds (several million total).  (The two would return to Britain in 1881-1884) From Britain he and Sankey returned to the States with the hope of stirring the same kind of revival fires in this country.  As in England, the politically powerful were glad to join Moody on his platform (President Grant among them).  Here too his campaign was a huge success as he moved from American city to city--these two great celebrities, drawing huge crowds, touching the lives of millions of people. E.M. (Edward) Bounds (1835-1913) Some of Bound's major works or writings: Power through Prayer Purpose In Prayer The Essentials Of Prayer The Necessity Of Prayer Unction: Heaven's Knighthood Devotion: The Heart of Prayer R.A. (Reuben Archer) Torrey (1856-1928) Plymouth Bretheren (Dispensationalist Pre-millennialism) Some of Torrey's major works or writings: The Great Attraction: The Uplifted Christ The Power of Prayer How to Be Inexpressibly Happy The Day of Golden Opportunity How to Deal with Those Who Have Little or No Concern about Their Souls Keep Praying Until God Answers William Ashley "Billy" Sunday (1862-1935) Some of Sunday's major works or writings: When My People No Longer Fear Me   PART FIVE:  THE SOCIAL GOSPEL To others, the Christian "call" was to dispense mercy and justice on behalf of the poor--pushing for education, housing and labor reform. Theirs was a "social gospel" which tended to emphasize the responsibility of the Christian to follow the example of Jesus in working with the poor in improving their economic and social conditions. The social gospel tended to work more effectively in inspiring the Christian worker in his or her charity--than in inspiring the recipient of that charity.  The poor supposedly could not take hold of the gospel until the economic and social conditions holding them in poverty had been eliminated.  This was in keeping with the Liberal view of environmental--rather than personal--factors being the source of the human "problem." Washington Gladden (1836-1918) Walter Rauschenbusch (1861-1918)    PART SIX:  MILLENIALISM AND THE "NEW REVELATION" RELIGIONS The difference between the evangelical Christian and the social gospel or "liberal" Christian was closely related to a theological difference that held the 19th century in fascination: millennialism. Millennialism pointed to the Return of Jesus--as he had promised almost 2000 years earlier. But there were strong divisions within millennialism as to exactly how that was to happen. The pre-millennialists (evangelicals) felt that Jesus was coming according to God's timing and only after he came would the millennium arrive in which the world be delivered from sin and sickness. The task of the Christian was to prepare the world spiritually (through the propagation of the gospel) for his coming. The post-millennialists (social gospel and liberals) believed quite the opposite:  that the return of Christ would come only after the millennium was ushered in--requiring the faithful to work to rid the world of sin and sickness (build the millennium) so that the Lord might come. There were others who felt that they were living in "prophetic" times. Voices were being heard and new revelations were being issued from God--which were having the effect of creating new Christian (or quasi-Christian) movments: 7th Day Adventists and Mormons in the early part of the century; Christian Scientists and Jehovah's Witness in the later part of the century. William Miller (1782-1849) He was the founder of the "Millerite" Adventist movement--from which the Seventh-Day Adventists eventually emerged. Joseph Smith (1805-1844) Founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day Saints (Mormons) As a teenager Smith had a number of visions, the most important being a visit by the Angel Moroni, in 1827 who directed him to a place where he uncovered a book of golden plates on which were written in some form of ‘reformed Egyptian’ the story of the ancient Jews and of Christ and his visit to America.  Using a special technique, he translated what he saw written there by ancient authors (Mormon being chief among them) ... which in 1830 Smith published in English translation as the Book of Mormon.   That same year he formed his first congregation as the Church of Christ, teaching his followers the new doctrines, and then sending them west to spread the new revelation as ‘Latter Day Saints.’   His ultimate goal was to establish a new Zion, a community of the Latter Day Saints to prepare the way for the coming of Christ.  At first he thought it would be in Ohio, where in 1831 a large group of his followers assembled.  But then some of his followers moved on to Missouri, planning to establish his New Jerusalem or Zion there.  But they ran into trouble when the local citizens reacted to the Mormons pouring into their area.  Smith ran into the resistance of the local Missouri militia when he arrived in Missouri to try to secure the land for his followers – and thus he decided to build his temple in Ohio.  But a major bank failure (resulting from the panic of 1837) undermined the harmony of his followers and Smith migrated with those who still remained with him back to Missouri ... once again facing stiff resistance there, except this time organized by the governor of Missouri who was determined to drive the Mormons from his state.  Thus some eight thousand Mormons followed Smith to Nauvoo, along the Mississippi on the Illinois side of the river.  For the next few years he was able to proceed in the building of his temple ... until now the citizens of Illinois began to take up arms against the Mormons.  Then in June of that year Smith and his brother Hyrum were killed by an angry mob ... throwing the Mormon community into confusion as to who was then to lead them. Brigham Young (1801-1877) Carried Mormonism to Salt Lake City Mary Baker Eddy (1821-1910) Founder of Christian Science Eddy's major works or writings: Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures (1875) Charles Taze Russell (1852-1916) Founder of the Jehovah's Witnesses (late 1870s) SCIENCE LOOKS FURTHER OUTWARD INTO SPACE Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (1784-1846) Joseph von Fraunhofer (1787-1887) Gustav Robert Kirchoff (1824-1887) Annie J. Cannon (1863-1941) SCIENCE INVESTIGATES THE SUBSTANCE OF MATTER AND LIGHT John Dalton (1766-1844) An English scientist with a wide range of interests:  meterology (especially the aurora), color blindness (he himself was color blind) and chemistry (the study of gasses).  But unquestionably his greatest contribution is in his development of the atomic theory of matter.  He discovered the atomic weight of various elements and the way the elements neatly arranged themselves in order by atomic weight--to form in 1803 the beginnings of the periodic table.  He speculated that the neatly progressive difference in atomic weight of the elements was not because that constituent atoms were of different weight--but of different number (on the supposition that the atoms for all elements were uniform in weight and size). Dalton's major works or writings: Meteorological Observations and Essays (1793) New System of Chemical Philosophy (2 vols: 1808 and 1810) Thomas Young (1773-1829)   Young performed a "double-slit" experiment with light--projecting light through two small holes onto a screen.  The resultant light patterns on the screen revealed not two concentrations of light on the screen as one might expect if light were particles, but an array of concentrations (interference patterns) that indicated the dynamics of waves. Young's major works or writings: "Experiments on Sound and Light" (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal      Society, 1800) "On the Theory of Light and Colors" (Bakerian Lecture 1801) "Experiments and Calculations Relative to Physical Optics" (Bakerian Lecture      1803) Hans Christian Ørsted A Danish physicist who discovered in 1820 that when an electrical current in a wire is varied, it acts to deflect a magnetic needle placed nearby--indicating a relationship between electricity and magnetism. André-Marie Ampère  (1775-1836) A French mathematician, physicist and chemist.  He was a professor at Bourg in 1801-1809 and afterwards at the École Polytechnique in Paris.  He took up on Ørsted's work on the relationship between electricity and magnetism in 1820 by giving mathematical demonstration of this relationship (by 1827 refined into Ampère's Law). Ampère was also a laboratory experimenter who invented a mechanism for measuring the flow of electricity and discovered or predicted the existence of a number of different types of electromagnetic waves. Ampère's major works or writings: Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely       Deduced from Experience (1827) Michael Faraday (1791-1867) An original thinker whose curiosity was such that he was not held in check by conventional scientific wisdom was Michael Faraday (1791-1867).  Faraday began his work simply as a person who loved to probe the working of things, without much concern as to the larger theoretical or cosmological implications of his research.  No grand intellectual loyalties predetermined his approach to his studies.  As a result, he was to lay many original foundation stones for a newly emerging, post-Newtonian intellectual edifice. From his early mentor, Sir Humphry Davy, Michael Faraday conceived the view (actually formulated in the previous century by Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich) that the foundational nature of elements were not hard substances, but mathematical points surrounded by fields of positive/negative or attracting/repulsing forces acting alternatively to produce each element's distinct structural pattern. It was Faraday's study of sound that gave rise to his thinking about how these field forces worked as waves or symetrically vibrating lines.  When powder was placed on an iron plate which then was vibrated by a violin bow, it formed a regular wave pattern.  He was even more startled to discover that the same wave pattern could be produced by the powder when the violin bow was drawn across a neighboring iron plate!  These wave patterns could be effected across a distance. This led him to thinking that electrical currents might work in a similar fashion--producing the "wave" configuration resulting from attractive forces of an on and off stage of electrical flow.  Experiments with magnets and iron filings suggested that this might be the case.  Faraday was surprised in his experimentation to discover that ending an electrical charge did not merely produce a return to rest of a galvanometer needle, but produced a negative reading in the same measure as the positive reading when a wire was charged with electricity.  There seemed to be a natural balance in the rise and fall of the "wave" of energy set off by an electrical charge. He drew from his experiments the conclusion that electricity was caused by tensions created in matter when such tensions were rapidly built up and then relieved in a rapidly repetitive fashion, in a wavelike fashion, within a substance.  Each substance had its own level of tolerance for such electromagnetic action.  Some substances, such as copper, were easily impacted by this process--and were thus good "conductors" of electrical energy.  Others were very resistant to this process--and could even be used as insulators to restrict or control the flow of electricity. From this observation Faraday began to believe that possibly all of the forces of nature were fields.  He dismissed the Newtonian view of all matter as being like atomic billiard balls knocking into each other to produce motion or life.  Instead he saw "substance" as operating something in the manner of energized fields--acting not only through substances but also even infinitely across open space (though with rapidly diminishing impact over any distance). In an experiment with polarized light projected through optical glass, he observed that a parallel electromagnetic field produced in the light a turning or rotation, indicating that light was affected by the electromagnetic field.  But he was startled to discover that in reversing the direction of the ray of light, the rotation remained in the same direction with respect to the parallel electromagnetic field.  This pointed to the conclusion that the action on the light was produced by the field force of the electricity and not by the molecular structure of the glass.  The action had nothing to do with molecules in the "conductors" (the glass as a conductor of light rays) but with the nearby electromagnetic fields operating on the light rays. As he had noticed that magnetism and electricity--and possible even light--though seemingly different forces, had the same basic attributes, it was easy for him to speculate that there was much more of matter that would operate in this fashion.  Perhaps even all matter worked in acordance with this field-force-as-wave process. Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev (1834-1907) Mendeleyev was a Russian chemist who attempted to derive the original elements of all substances--that is the substances that themselves could not be separated further into constituent components.  Then he attempted to classify these elements into an orderly array.  He noticed how the elements arranged themselves in a natural array according to particular chemical and structural properties--ones repeated over and over again to reveal an underlying periodic structure. Using the ideas of John Dalton concerning atomic weights of the elements, Mendeleyev presented this progressive, periodic array of the elements in accordance with each element's particular atomic weight, weight based on the particular number of atoms contained in each of the separate elements. There were gaps in his system--but he predicted (correctly) that these gaps would eventually be filled as more of the elements were discovered.  The system also gave explanation to various chemical relations in a more comprehensive or systematic fashion--and was an important step in the direction of explaining (a generation later) the natural transformation of one element into another through the process of radioactive decay (the loss of constituent atoms). Mendeleyev's major works or writings: The Principles of Chemistry (1868-1870) James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) It was James Clerk Maxwell that in 1873 would give definite proof to Faraday's idea that magnetism, electricity and light were structured very much alike.  Through experimentation he was able to demonstrate that an electric current moved in a wave pattern through a wire at the same rate as the known speed of light through space (186,000 miles per second).  This gave powerful evidence that light and electricity were closely related.  Indeed, he claimed that there were probably all kinds of electomagnetic waves--operating at different frequencies, well beyond the ones the one that human eye was able to pick up. Even the waves the eye sees are of slightly different frequency--giving rise to their color variation.  White light was the sum of all light falling within the frequency range the human eye could detect. Maxwell's experiments left questions about how it was that light moved through space.  Though Faraday's work had demonstrated that it was not through molecular action that light (or electricity) moved, it still seemed to Maxwell to require some carrying substance, some material "medium" to move light.  Maxwell thus took up the ether theory and tried to erect an explanation of the movement of light across space, using ether as the medium of light. Maxwell's major works or writings: Theory of Heat (1871) Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism(1873) Matter and Motion (1876) Albert Michelson (1852-1931) and Edward Morley Michelson's major works or writings: Velocity of Light (1902) Light Waves and their Uses (1899-1903) Studies in Optics (1927) George Fitzgerald Hendrik Lorentz (1853-1928) Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) A German professor of physics at the Karlsruhe Polytechnic who in the second half of the 1880s was able to reproduce electromagnetic waves--and study their particular nature and action as waves. His work with radio waves was his greatest contribution.  He noted that radio waves travelled at the same speed as light (186,000 miles per second), linking them to the growing family of electromagnetism/light.   He demonstrated that radio waves, like light, could be reflected, refracted and diffracted.  He then applied this knowledge in transmitting and receiving radio waves, thus founding radio technology. Henri Poincaré He studied the dynamics of complex systems, lines of motion across irregular topographies (such as mountains and valleys).  He suggested that there would always be elements of unpredictability about such motion. Poincaré's major works or writings: The Relativity of Space (from Science and Method) Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908) Becquerel is credited with discovering radioactivity. THE SCIENCE OF HUMAN PERCEPTION Ernst Mach (1838-1916) Empiricist/Positivist Mach's major works or writings: The Analysis of Sensations Gottlob Frege (1848-1925) Frege was a mathematician and philosopher at the University of Jena in Germany.  He attempted to reduce the language of logic to mathematic formulation to give it a precision and clarity. Frege's major works or writings: Begriffsschrift (Concept Notation) (1879) Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik: (The Foundations of Arithmetic) (1891) Über Sinn und Bedeutung (On Sense and Denotation) (1892) Grundgesetze der Arithmetik (Basic Laws of Arithmetic) (1893 & 1903) Der Gedanke. Eine logische Untersuchung (Thought: A Logical Enquiry) (1918) Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) German phenomenologist: classifier of elements of reality (phenomena) and analysis of the essence of each phenomenon. Early influenced by his teacher at the University of Vienna, Franz Brentano--who focused philosophical enquiry into how the mind experiences an object (not the truth or falseness of the object itself).  Husserl promoted the idea of a phenomenological reduction of things, so that what we are actually studying is our experience of something, apart from what the thing might actually be apart from our own particular experience. The goal was to reach a sense of the transcending ego--a self-awareness or self-conciousness of such purity of refinement that it attains the "Archimedian point."  To Husserl this Archimedian point was far from being merely some kind of subjectivistic reality--but was a distinct phenomenon that could be analyzed mathematically, even though it was founded on the inner experience of a person and not on the things "out there" which we think of as standing on their own apart from whether they are ever observed or not. Husserl's major works or writings:   Philosophy of Arithmetic (1891)  An early work in which Husserl described mathematics as the product of the logical ordering (producing generalizations from specifics) of empirical data. Mathematics is thus the by-product of the human mind: it is a psychological science. It has subjective reality only in that it is a system of symbols useful in ordering empirical data into comprehensible units of thought. Logical Investigations (1900-1901)  Marks a radical shift in Husserl's thinking: phenomenology is a "non-empirical" science.  It focuses on pure phenomena, that is, pure "essences" of various things and events that we observe.  The human powers of observation focus us on a particular thing or an event out of the mass of information that our minds could be aware of at any one moment: there is an intentionality about human consciousness.  What directs that focus is a sense of recognizing a particular pattern or "essence" which sets a thing or an event apart from the surrounding data.  But likewise, that particular thing or event comes into "being" or achieves its "essence" only in its being drawn out from among all the data through the very act of being observed. Thus both the observer and the thing observed are interdependent parts of the essence of things. Henri Bergson (1859-1941) Bergson's major works or writings: Time and Free Will (1889) Matter and Memory (1896) Laughter (1900) Creative Evolution (1907) An Introduction to Metaphysics (1913) The Two Sources of Morality and Religion (1932) CULTIVATORS OF THE NEW TECHNOLOGY Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931) An American inventor of wide interests and abilities--who patented over 1000 processes and instruments during his lifetime. Edison was born in Milan, Ohio and raised with virtually no formal education.  At age 12 he began selling newspapers at a train station--and in a few years had succeeded in moving himself into the station's telegraph office as operator, in turn taking him to a number of cities as telegraphist.  From this occupation emerged his interest in technological development--especially with respect to the sending of messages across electrical lines.  But he also applied himself to study and experimentation in a number of other related areas.  In 1868 he took out his first patent--a machine for recording and counting votes.  This was followed by work on a number of other machines--to improve the telegraph, the typewriter, stock ticker tapes, copying devices. In the mid 1870s his experiments led to the development of the carbon transmitter, very important in regulating the electrical current send across wire.  At about the same time (1877) he patented a simple phonograph of a cylinder covered by tin foil and turned by hand.  Within ten years he had vastly improved the machine by placing his recordings on a wax cylinder and turning it by an electrical motor. In 1879 he patented the design of the first light bulb--an electrified carbon thread glowing in a glass vacuum. Efforts to improve this important invention led him further into work on electrical generators and transmitters for heat, light and power. He extended his work in the 1880s into design of an electrical railway, a prototype of the first radio tube, and an electric transmitter which could send signals through the air between ships and trains.  In the 1890s he worked at a way of  using electricity to produce iron ore concentrations (1890s).  In the early 1900s he developed an improved electrical storage battery. In 1891 he patented a camera which was able to take pictures in rapid success onto a film strip when then could be run through an illuminated box to produce motion pictures.  Later he was to develop the projector--by which the images were thrown on a screen by a bright light. During America's involvement in World War One (1917-1918) Edison extended his realm of experimental interests to include chemicals used in warfare. THE 19TH CENTURY: A FULL HISTORY Political and Social Ferment The Urge to Rationalize and Control Social Dynamics The Rising Spirit of Nationalism Western Imperialism Go on to the next section:  The First Half of the 20th Century   Miles H. Hodges