Justin
"Martyr" (d. 165)
Justin underwent his own philosophical/spiritual
journey as a young man. Along the way he studied Stoicism, Aristotelianism,
Pythagorism, Platonism. He finally became a convert to Christianity on
the basis of the integrity and bravery of its martyrs. Became a teacher
in Rome--and died a martyr there rather than sacrifice to the gods.
He took up the task of relating Christianity
to Greek philosophy--especially Platonism (which he still respected). He
stressed (along with the gospel-writer John) that Christ was the Logos.
He claimed also that Plato had been inspired by the Old Testament. And
finally he put forth the idea that Christianity was the completion of what
earlier Greek philosophers were trying to arrive at.
 Justin's
major works or writings:
First Apology
(ca. 150) Justin explains Christ as the Divine Logos--the mediator between
Creator and created
Second Apology
Dialogue with Trypho In
this conversation with the Jewish Trypho, Justin put forth a Platonist
position with emphasis on the self-revelation of God through Jesus Christ--"wisdom"
incarnate
On the Sole Government of
God
Irenaeus,
Bishop of Lyons (ca. 130-202)
Irenaeus was born into a Greek Christian
family of Asia Minor. He became a disciple of Polycarp--but was also influenced
by Justin's philosophy. He moved to Lyons (Gaul or France) as a young man,
becoming a presbyter there--in 177 succeeding the martyred bishop and living
on at Lyons until his death possibly at the beginning of the 200s.
He took up the theological task of
refuting the Gnostic heresy. His writings give us much of our knowledge
(negatively biased, of course) of the Gnostics. The Gnostic claim
of possessing special secret knowledge not given to other Christians he
refuted with the claim that the apostles would have passed such knowledge
on to the churches they themselves founded and loved--if such knowledge
had actually existed.
Also--he noted that the apostolic
churches all proclaimed the same set of doctrines out of a well recognized
set of apostolic writings (the New Testament)--outweighing, by way of true
authority, the ridiculous and contradictory innovations of the Gnostics
and their writings.
He was opposed to Montanism--but
urged the church not to condemn this movement without careful thought on
the matter.
Irenaeus'
major works or writings:
Against Heretics
Clement
of Alexandria (Titus Flavius Clemens) (ca. 150-215)
He was born a Greek pagan, but converted
to Christianity and studied under a number of Christian teachers--principally
Pantaenus, head of the Christian school in Alexandria (whom he succeeded
in around 190)
Egypt at the time was falling heavily
under the influence of Gnosticism. Clement took up the cause of defending
orthodox Christianity through demonstrating its conformity to well accepted
Greek philosophy--proving orthodox Christianity to be thus a higher version
of Christianity (and also the consummation of Greek philosophy). Clement's
answer to Gnosticism was to demonstrate true Christian "gnosis": the discipline
of ethical living and the disciplined contemplation of God.
But Clement himself was subject to
some of the Gnostic negative views about the natural life: Jesus surely
did not need to eat, drink and sleep like mere mortals--but did so that
his disciples might not get the wrong idea about him (docetism).
He strongly laid the case for the
impassability (emotionlessness) of God--which was also the vision of God
held by the Greek philosophers--and also the ideal of the Christian seeking
after God.
We also are beholden to him for our
knowledge today about certain aspects of the ancient Greek mystery religions
and popular philosophies of the day. His Exhortation to the Heathens/Greeks
is a careful, point by point refutation of the major doctrines of these
religious and philosophical movements. He writes so knowledgeably
because he himself had once been a part of their world. He still
thought highly of Greek philosophy and believed that Plato and others had
helped opened the way for the Gospel through their own doctrines which
were not necessarily in opposition to the Gospel.
Clement
of Alexandria's major works or writings:
Exhortation to the
Heathens/Greeks
Instructor/Tutor
The Stromata/Miscellanies
Tertullian
(ca. 160-225)
Tertullian was a Latin Carthaginian
who was born a pagan and trained in rhetoric and the law. He converted
to Christianity just before the turn of the century. He seems to have remained
all his life a teacher--probably never becoming a bishop or even presbyter.
But he was an excellent writer in Latin--and very influential in formulating
Latin theology.
He tended to be a religious legalist
who dedicated himself to the idea that the faith should be confined tightly
within the parameters of a well worked out line of Orthodox theology. Indeed,
he demonstrated an (unacknowledged) intellectual debt to Stoicism--with
all its religious rigorousness.
He was a very strong opponent of
monarchianism (Sabellius)--laying out one of the earliest Orthodox statements
on the nature of the Trinity.
However, he departed from the Greek
Christian theologians (such as Justin) who saw Christianity as being in
harmony with Greek philosophy, noting the distinction which exists between
rational knowledge and faith; faith is God-given and not open to the speculations
of the human mind.
Eventually he became a Christian
Montanist--admiring its moral rigor. Indeed, he became very critical of
the "established" church for its leniency in dealing with on-going sins
of Christians--even changing his mind about the possibility of a second
repentance for a back-slider.
Tertullian's
major works or writings:
Apology (197)
defending the good citizenship of the Christians and citing the injustice
of their martyrdom by Roman authorities
Proscription against the Heretics
a short, general treatise against early heresies
Against Marcion
against the Gnosticism of Marcion
Against Praxeas
in opposition to the monarchianism (and anti-Montanism) of Praxeas; formulated
the Latin terminology of God as being of "one substance" in "three persons"
To the Martyrs (197)
Patience (197)
Spectacles
Prayer (200)
Modesty a rigorist
view of the faith
A Treatise on the Soul
Origen
(ca. 185-254)
Origen was born into a Christian family
in Alexandria. His father was martyred in 202--leaving a very deep impression
on Origen. He studied under Neo-Platonist Ammonius Saccas (also teacher
of Plotinus) and lived in Alexandria as a teacher at the catechetical school,
until he had a falling out with the Alexandrian bishop. He then moved to
Caesarea in Palestine where he continued his work.
He lived the life--up until he began
to have second thoughts on the matter as an older man--of an ascetic. He
remained true to the faith, suffering severe torture in the Decian persecution
of (249-251)--dying a few years later from the effects of this treatment.
Origen was a prolific expositor of
the Bible (carefully studying Scripture verse by verse). But he viewed
its content as allegory--used to lead the reader to a "deeper," more spiritual
meaning of Scripture. [Note: this was a principle well established in Greek
learning and used widely in the study of the ancient Greek legends. Thus
Philo used this in his commentaries on the Jewish Scriptures. However,
this put Origen in strong distinction to the attitudes of the more literalist
Tertullian on the matter!]
As a catechetical teacher (preparing
those who were about to enter the church), Origen was well aware of and
loyal to the doctrines of Christian Orthodoxy--though (in keeping with
the intellectual spirit of Greek learning) he felt that the scholar had
the call to pass imaginatively beyond these foundational ideas--not so
as to contradict them, but to offer supplementary understanding).
His imaginatively speculative mind
would get him in trouble with Orthodoxy in a later age--for many of his
ideas were later condemned as heretical: thus for instance, the old Socratic
theory that the soul exists independently of the body and enters it at
birth; or the universalist notion that in the end all would be saved; or
some very imaginative views on the Trinity!
He saw Jesus' redemptive death on
the cross as an idea of salvation suitable for the common lot of people.
But for higher thinkers, he believed that Jesus' redemptive purpose was
lodged in the idea of the believer being raised to the level of God through
the contemplation of God (an idea that would reappear in medieval mysticism).
The higher soul understands the importance of moving from the imperfect
world of becoming (the world of flux and change) to the perfect world of
pure being (eternal, unchanging, impassible--like God). This contemplative
path is the path of higher minds.
He was a trinitarian--in opposition
to the monarchianists. Father, Son and Holy Spirit are three
hypostases
(translated to the Latin as "persons"). The Son however was begotten of
the Father not as a single historical event--but as an on-going event since
the beginning of eternity.
But in line with classic Greek philosophy,
he believed that creation was eternal--not made. Beings fall from grace
and thus from an eternal relationship with God and thus come in need of
redemption. The purpose of God's redemptive work in Christ was thus to
restore creation to its original state of being in eternal relation with
God.
Origen's
major works or writings:
First Principles
Against Celsus
Prayer
Exhortation to Martyrdom
Commentary on the Gospel of
John
Commentary on the Gospel of
Matthew
Cyprian,
Bishop of Carthage (martyred in 258)
Cyprian was born of an upper-class pagan
family and destined for a life in high public office--until he converted
to Christianity around 245 because of the high moral qualities of the faith.
Only a few short years later he was
made bishop of Carthage! He then had to lead the Carthaginian church during
the Decian persecutions of 249-251--which was aimed first at the death
of all Christian bishops. Cyprian, warned in advance, was able to hide--though
this gave jealous clergy, who had resented his rapid rise, a chance to
criticize him.
Then the persecution was directed
against all Christians, forcing them, under penalty of death, to sacrifice
to the pagan gods--including importantly the emperor-god. A large numbers
of Christians apostatized (gave up their Christian faith) under this unexpected
pressure.
Then when just as suddenly the persecutions
ended--the problem emerged of readmitting apostatized Christians back into
the fold: who should have the power to readmit them and under what terms?
The Church fell into deep internal dissent over the matter.
Some of the more rigoristic withdrew
in anger at the ease by which Christians were being forgiven for their
apostacy--and withdrew to set up separate churches. The unity of the church
was threatened.
Cyprian pressed for forgiveness and
unity--and claimed that only the bishops, not the most rigoristic individuals
("confessors"), had the right to restore the apostates.
His views influenced greatly the
idea of a church ruled by ordained bishops and not by charismatic individuals.
But he also believed that bishops
had autonomous authority in their own bishoprics and no bishops stood above
any others (such as the Bishop of Rome!) His view on this matter prevailed
only temporarily.
Cyprian's
major works or writings:
The Lapsed
That Idols Are Not Gods
To Donatus
The Unity of the Church
Anthony
of Egypt (251-356)
A religious hermit in the Egyptian desert
(along the lower Nile) who was considered the first organizer and inspirer
of monastic Christian life. As a young man of about 20 he took up
the practice of asceticism (self-denial). At about the age of 35
he took to the desert to live in total isolation--remaining in that condition
for nearly 20 years. During these years he was engaged in an on-going
struggle with visions of Satan--and in the perfecting of his spiritual
life.
The stories of his struggles began
to inspire the larger Christian world (including Athanasius who was to
write a biography:
Life of Anthony). Indeed, over the years
a large number of other Christian ascetics had gathered around him to imitate
his discipline, and in 305 Anthony ended his isolation in order to instruct
others in the monastic life. Eventually he organized a monastery,
Dayr Mari Antonios, on a mountain near the Nile--which stands to this day. | 
The
Prophetic Tradition of the Israelites
Jesus
of Nazareth: The Messiah (Christ)
The
Translators of the Palestinian Gospel into a
The
Early Christian Apologists--and Martyrs
Early
Definers of the Faith: The Pre-Nicene
Early
Dissenters from the "Catholic" View
The
Developers of Orthodox Theology (300 - 450)
The
Early Ecumenical Councils
Early Christian
Missionaries
Augustine
(354-430)
